SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION & ENLIGHTENMENT
Scientific Revolution: use of the scientific method to make technical advances.
-Problem, Hypothesis, Experiment/Observation & Measurement, Conclusion
MAJOR FIGURES OF THE SCIENTIFIC REVOULTION:
o Sir Francis Bacon – Popularized use of the scientific method
o Copernicus - developer of “heliocentrism” (sun being the center of the universe opposed to the Earth (geocentrism)
o Galileo (1564-1642) proves through data collection (telescope) “Heliocentrism”
o Kepler (1571-1630) showed elliptical orbits
o Vesalius (1514-1564) Human anatomy (Founder of Modern Anatomy)
o Newton (1643 – 1727) formulated laws of gravity & popularized use of “scientific method” among the upper class ushering in the Age Of Enlightenment (1700s)
-science & natural law (laws that govern human natures)
-Rationalism (the power of human reason)
-people can live by these laws & solve society’s problems
Isaac Newton: - astronomer/biblical scholar, mathematician, inventor
- Greatest contribution: universal laws:
ü showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation (Predicted Halley’s comet course & “arrival” to Earth)
ü Universal gravitation (apple): every point mass in the universe attracts every other point mass with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
ü Three laws of motion:
a) If an object experiences no net force, then its velocity is constant: the object is either at rest, or it moves in a straight line with constant speed
b) The acceleration of a body is parallel and directly proportional to the net force acting on the body, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the body
c) When a first body exerts a force F1 on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force F2 = −F1 on the first body. This means that F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
- Principia Mathematica : explains various findings with mathematic calculations
- attended Cambridge University in 1660 (curriculum dominated by classical philosophers of Greece & wasn’t “scientific”) – met Robert Hooke -------------------------STUDY OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD CALLED “NATURAL PHILOSOPHY”
- 1st Great Work= light – figured out the nature of light (spectrum) & light years
- 1665 = Bubonic Plague, students of Cambridge sent home => “Year of Miracles” => gravity, calculus, laws of motion
- Words coined by Newton: action, reaction, inertia, force
*COPERNICUS: speculation about origins of his ideas on heliocentrism - said to might have copied from Arabs
Ø Scientific Revolution → new scientific institutes established (often w/ gov.'t aid) to advance research & publicize findings | Lectures & easy-to-read manuals publicized new advances | attacks on beliefs of witchcraft | Doctors increased attacks on popular healers = promotes more scientific diagnosis of conditions| emergence of insurance co. to help guard against risks | emergence of newsletters (showing lost & found items) | Writers attack traditional religious ideas (ex. miracles) b/c no disruption of nature's laws is necessary - caused problems for magicians|
Ø Deism = new conception of god - arguing that although there might be a divinity, its role was just to set natural laws in motion →Christian beliefs in sins crumbled in view of intellectuals b/c they saw human nature = basically good
Ø Science => key to gaining & defining knowledge
POLITICAL CHANGES
o Usually absolute monarchies (ex. Louis XIV of France) – Britain & Netherlands however, emphasized role of central state, but in addition built parliamentary regimes where kings shared power w/ representatives selected by nobles & upper urban classes (English civil wars 1688-1689 - Glorious Revolution helped parliament gain sovereignty over king) = parliamentary monarchy
o people of nation states ↑believed that gov.’t should act for their interests → promoted new political values & loyalties – ex. when bad harvests caused food prices ↑, gov.’t obligated to help
o Frederick the Great (of Prussia) introduced greater freedom of religion while expanding the economic functions of the state – gov.’t actively encouraged better agricultural methods (use of American potato as staple crop), enacted laws promoting greater commercial coordination & greater equity (harsh traditional punishments cut back).
o Wars & gaining of territory = common pattern ( Seven Years’ War b/w FRA & ENG + Austria & Prussia – Prussia gained lands)
ENLIGHTENMENT – a cultural movement in 18th century - Purpose was to reform society using reason (rather than tradition, faith) & advance knowledge through science - Promoted science and intellectual interchange & opposed superstition, intolerance & abuses by church and state.
o application of scientific method to society – idea was that rational laws could describe social as well as physical behavior & knowledge can be used to improve policy
o criminologists wrote that brutal punishments fail to deter crime – education is better solution, political theorists wrote about importance of carefully planned constitutions & controls over privilege
o economic policy: gov.’t should avoid regulation in favor of the operation of individual initiative & market forces –
o Growing belief that general models of human behavior could be derived from rational thought
o Socialists argued that economic equality & abolition of private property should become important goals
o Feminist thinkers argued that political rights & freedoms should extend to women – FRA = Madam de Beaumere – Journal des Dames & GER = Marianne Ehrmann used her journal to suggest that men are the ones to blame for women’s lowly position
o Reading clubs & coffee houses allowed people discuss new reform ideas – compilations of scientific & philosophical findings (ex. Encyclopedia Britannica) won wide audience & created fortune in book sales
Ø Changes in popular beliefs fed by new economic structures – encouraged a reevaluation of the family & roles of children (children raised w/ less adult restraint). Ideas about liberty & fundamental equality arose to challenge existing systems
THE COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION
o EUR trade ↑ - had more new goods available
o basic spur to greater commercialization was the price inflation that occurred throughout W EUR during 16th century
o massive import of gold & silver from Spain's new colonies in L. America → forced prices up & availability of $↑ (based on silver supply → price rise (inflation)
o new wealth → demand for products↑, but productions couldn't keep up → merchants take new risks: borrowing (b/c $ was losing value)
o Ordinary people able to buy processed goods (sugar, tea, coffee from Indonesia & W. Indies) for daily use = importance of colonies & growing consumerism
o growing use of paid professional entertainment as part of popular leisure(even in rural festivals)
o Agriculture changed from 3 field sys. → new procedures for draining swamps, nitrogen fixing crops
o stockbreeding improved – new techniques like seed drills & use of scythes instead of sickles → ↑productivity
o Potato originally thought to be cause of plagues (not mentioned in Bible) → ↑popularity b/c enlightened gov.’t leaders & peasants wanted to win greater economic security & nutrition
Ø Inflation & new colonial opportunities => formation of great trading co. w/ gov.'t support (SPN, ENG, FRN, NL) →gov.'t grant regional monopolies to co. (ex. Dutch E. India Co.) dominates trade by having colonies (islands of Indonesia)→ merchants brought more profits & developed new managerial skills + banking arrangements
Ø Improved Food Supply - better nutrition → population booms
Ø Colonial markets stimulated manufacturing - peasants produce mainly for own needs, but agricultural specialty areas developed w/ production of wines, cheeses, wool, etc. - industries favored commercial farming & use of paid laborers on land - manufacturing specializations arose → technical improvements → QUALITY OF LIFE FOR ORDINARY PEOPLE IMPROVED; could afford more/better things (ex. French started to enjoy wines = higher quality of life)
Ø Capitalism (investment of funds in hopes of larger profit) spread – Rapid spread of household production of textiles & metal products –capitalist merchants distributed orders & supplies → workers ran production process for pay
Ø James Kay introduced the flying shuttle = permitted automatic crossing of threads on loom => ↑efficiency
SOCIAL PROTEST
o growing commercialism → creation of proletariat = people w/o access to wealth-producing property
o population growth & ↑food prices affected poor - many had to sell small plots of land
o proletariat: - became manufacturing workers - depending on merchant capitalists to keep tools in village in use
- paid laborers in agricultural estates - landlords eager for more workers
- migrated to cities → ↑beggars & wandering poor affected society
>> blame for moral failings rested on the poor - new tough attitude towards poor
Ø Protests erupted - common people protested for greater protection from poverty & loss of property - revealed insecurities of workers | New ideas of equality & political rights (ex. group called Levelers petitioned about political rights)
Ø Witchcraft Persecution = reflected resentment towards the poor-accused of witchcraft when denying responsibility for their poverty; 60,000-100,000 suspected/accused were killed → new tensions about family life & role of women (common targets of witchcraft)
Ø ELITES & MASSES: changes (commercia, scientific, industrial revolutions) led ordinary people to change – family: encouragement for new parent-child relationship
Ø WOMEN: old argument = no need for women b/c love isn’t necessary, they are only there to “entertain” men → women deserve more respect b/c they can be equally smart if educated. New emphasis on love b/w husband & wife
MAJOR IDEAS 1550s – 1820s
1. The voyages & claims of the EUR explorers led to the exploitation of L. America’s native peoples & resources
2. The colonial economy stemmed from a mercantilism sys. abetted a monopolistic relationship between the colonial power & the colony
3. A racially & ethnically based social stratification sys. was put into place within society
4. Catholicism becomes dominant religion within L. America
5. Scarcity of Native American labor (death through smallpox & forced labor) led to the importation of slaves from Africa (Triangular trade)
COLONIALISM – SOCIAL EFFECTS
o L. America –new social status structure put into place based on race & ethnicity
- Catholicism becomes dominant religion
- Spanish = “universal language”
o N. America – religious freedom & economic opportunity often brings new colonists – protestant groups
ü imperialism = “extreme colonialism” – controlling economic gov.’t & people
ü colonialism – purpose = trade
o Influence of Catholic Church → church becomes turned– Batolomé de las Casas – fought for rights of Native Americans
The Society of Castas
o Indian women suffered sexual exploitation from Europeans, and the crown sponsored marriages in a society where there were few European women → mestizo population.
o American realities had created new social distinctions based on race and place of birth: EUR were always @ the top; African slaves & Indians occupied the bottom. - Mestizos filled the intermediate categories.
o Society as a whole remained subject to Iberian patriarchal forms.
o Women were under male authority; upper-class women were confined to household occupations, but many from the lower class participated in the economy.
o European population growth and eighteenth-century wars gave the colonies new importance.
POLITICAL EFFECTS OF COLONIZATION
o Spain – 2 main colonies in “New Spain” (Mesoamerica) & “Peru” (S. America). Also have various colonies in the Caribbean
o Basically imperialize local population = complete control of gov.’t , laws, economics, etc.
o Hidalgos = lazy upper class develops in Spain itself as described in Cervantes’ Don Quixote
o Portugal – main colony in New World =Brazil & colonies in Indian Ocean trade (Goa-India & SE Asia)
o England & France – colonies in N. America & Caribbean
o Sea dog terror tactics used to plunder much of Spain & Portugal’s wealth from the New World
o colonies are often left to rule themselves since resources are less than in Spain
LATIN AMERICA
1Pre-Columbian before 1500s
2Colonial Latin America
3Independence movements 1820s – WWII (Juntas & Caudillos)
4Modern Latin America – away from dictators toward democracy 1900s- today
INITIAL COLONIZATION OF LATIN AMERICA
o Hernando Cortes (Spanish conquistador) amazed by Tenochtitlan (Aztecs) – conquered Aztecs by kidnapping Moctezuma II
o Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incas (@ Cajamarca) by holding Inca Atahualpa as hostage
o Initial conquests:
1) Cities of natives sacked, temples destroyed, turned to rubble → conquerors’ own houses of worship
2) New arrivals (settlers) – used Native Americans as slaves – conversion of natives to their religion = Requirement
3) Colonies entered world economy – provided silver, gold, new crops
o Spanish & Portuguese = Iberians b/c from the Iberian Peninsula
o Portuguese, English, Spanish, Dutch, & French all created landed estates = plantations – worked by forced laborers (1st NA → Africans)
o Europeans exploited precious metals where discovered, or followed rumors of gold/emeralds
o mid-15th century – Ferdinand of Aragon & Isabella of Castile
o carried out program of unification that sought to eliminate the religious & ethnic diversity in their kingdom (Reconquista)
o fall of Granada in 1492 (last Muslim kingdom in Spain)
o Isabella ordered the Jews of her realm to convert/leave country – 200,000+ left (disrupted economy)
o supported project of Columbus who hoped to reach E. Indies by sailing W
o Spanish & Portuguese = very urban → built cities in Americas
o commoners who moved to Americas hoped to become new nobility & turn NA into serfs
o Patriarchal family was readily adapted to L. America – large estates & encomiendas (grants of American Indian laborers) provided framework for relations based on economic dominance
o Spain & Portugal had always imported slaves from trans-Sahara trade, so they incorporated this tradition to America’s slavery
o political centralization of Portugal & Spain depended on professional bureaucracy – men were lawyers & judges – Church served as one pillar of politics – close links of state & church => reconquest of peninsula from Muslims – links extended to New World
o Portugal activity along W. African coast since 1415 – established trading posts not colonies, but in Atlantic islands, extensive estates were established -> slave trade w/ Africa & commercial agricultural sys. based on sugar (ex. Brazil => plantation colony)
CONQUEST
Three periods: a) 1492 – 1570: main lines of administration established & economy set out
b) 1570 – 1700: colonial institutions & societies took definite form
c) 18th century: period of reform & reorganization in both Spanish America & Portuguese Brazil (revolts)
o Testing ground = Caribbean: Columbus’ 1st voyage to Santo Domingo (Hispaniola) & established colony => new voyages & more conquests – Puerto Rico (1508), Cuba (1511), Panama area & N. coast of S. America (1513)
o agricultural Taino people of Caribbean islands provided enough surplus labor to make their distribution to individual Spaniards possible
o holder of an encomienda (grants of American Indian laborers)= encomendero was able to use people as workers & tax them
o Gold hunting, slaving, & EUR diseases depopulated the islands
o Spain’s strongly fortified ports: Havana, San Juan, Santo Domingo – guarded Spain’s commercial life line from collapse until arrival of SUGAR & SLAVES
o 1st 40 yrs.: built Iberian style cities → had to adapt to American conditions (hurricanes, native people’s resistance => (abandoned/moved towns)
o American cities laid out according to a grid plan w/ town hall, major church, governor’s place @ central plaza – applied Roman models & rational town planning ideas *=> Conquest = settlement
o To rule new colonies, Spain established administrative institutions: treasury office, royal court of appeals staffed by professional magistrates. – Spanish legalism was part of transfer
o Laws developed based on those of Spain & improved by American experience
o Church was @ 1st represented by a few priests → missionaries (ex. Dominicans) –Cathedral built on Hispaniola (1530) → university was built also afterwards
o Rumors stimulated immigration from Spain, by 1510s = large influx of Spanish women
o merchants imported African slaves to work on plantations on islands
o gold hunting replaced by establishment of ranches & sugar plantations in 1520s
o Disease & conquest annihilated natives of Caribbean – depopulation of natives on one particular island → goes to next island to get slaves, & depopulation occurs there →(& so forth) – Antilles (“Caribs”) whom the Spanish thought were cannibals survived longer b/c island = less attractive
o mistreatment & destruction of American Indians → attempts by clerics & royal administrators to end abuses
ü Batolomé de Las Casas (1484 – 1566) a conquistador turned priest initiated struggle for justice
o Depopulation & resistance of Native Americans => importation of African slaves
The Paths of Conquest
o Conquest of Latin America- not a unified movement - One toward Mexico, the 2nd → S America.
o Conquest process was regulated by agreements between leaders and their gov.’t - most of conquerors not professional soldiers.
o Conquerors triumphed because of their horses, better weapons, and ruthless leadership.
o conquest, exploitation, and conversion = justified b/c many answered that Indians were not fully human.
o Father Bartolomé de las Casas defended the Indians, recognized them as humans.
o All peoples suffered from the European conquest - population of central Mexico during the 16th century ↓ from 25 million to < 2 million.
o Mexico and Peru- the traditional nobility presided over taxation and labor demands.
o Enslavement of Indians was prohibited by the middle of the 16th century - In place of slavery, the government awarded encomiendas to conquerors who used their Indians as a source of labor and taxes. - Most encomiendas disappeared by the 1620s.
o Many Indians, to escape forced labor, fled their villages to work for wages.
o Biological and ecological exchange—called the Columbian Exchange—changed the character of both new and old societies - Old World diseases decimated New World populations - Old and New Worlds exchanged crops and weeds.
o Spanish America's population mostly engaged in agriculture and ranching, but mining = the essential activity b/c silver was precious.
o The major silver mines opened in Mexico and Peru during middle of 16th century.
o Mines were worked by Indians, at first through forced methods and later for wages - Mining techniques were European.
o Spanish America remained an agricultural economy - Spanish rural estates = haciendas
o Using Indian and mixed-ancestry workers- produced grains, grapes, and livestock primarily for consumers in the Americas.
o competition between haciendas and Indian farmers.
o Sheep raising →formation of small textile sweatshops worked by Indian women. Silver ruled the commercial system.
o A board of trade controlled commerce with the Indies - often worked with a merchant guild (consulado) in Seville that had extensive rights over American trade.
o To protect silver fleets from rivals and pirates, Spanish organized a convoy sys. made possible by the development of heavily armed galleons. Galleons = wealth in silver that went to Spain was used for state expenses and for manufactured goods for the Americas.
o The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) between Spain and Portugal regularized conflicting claims by drawing a north-south line around the earth - all of the Americas, except Brazil, went to Spain.
o Indians and many Europeans did not accept the decisions.
o The king ruled from Spain through the Council of Indies.
o The viceroys, high-ranking nobles, represented the king and had extensive legislative, military, and judicial powers. - The clergy performed both secular and religious functions.
o The church profoundly influenced colonial cultural and intellectual life thru architecture, printing, schools, &universities.
o 1500- The Portuguese reached Brazil.
o Portuguese nobles given land grants (captaincies) to colonize and develop.
o Towns founded & sugar plantations established using Indian & later African slave workers.
o 1549- Royal governor created an administration with a capital at Salvador.
o Indian resistance was broken by disease, military force, and missionary action.
o Brazil became the world's leading sugar producer –w/ a single crop produced by slave labor, was 1st plantation colony.
o Slaves, composing ≈ ½ of the total population at the close of the 17th century, occupied the bottom level.
o Portugal created a bureaucratic administrative structure under the direction of a governor general. - cores of the bureaucracy = lawyers.
o Missionaries had an important role; they ran ranches, mills, schools, and church institutions.
BRAZIL'S AGE OF GOLD
o 1580-1640~ During the 17th century, Brazil became the predominant Portuguese colony - Portugal and Brazil shared the same monarch.
o During the 17th century struggles b/w Spain & Holland, Dutch occupied part of Brazil until expelled in 1654.
o Meanwhile, Dutch, English, & French established sugar plantation colonies in Caribbean →Brazil lost its position as predominant sugar producer.
o People rushed to the mines & formed new settlements - mines worked by slaves →Brazil = greatest source of gold in the Western world.
o Rio de Janeiro, nearer to the mines, became a major port and the capital in 1763.
o The gold &diamonds did not contribute much to Portuguese economic development.
o The conquest & settlement of Latin America by EUR formed large multiethnic societies.
SLAVE TRADE
1. Existed in Africa before the coming of the Europeans.
2. Portuguese replaced European slaves with Africans.
ü Sugar cane & sugar plantations.
ü First boatload of African slaves brought by the Spanish in 1518.
ü 275,000 enslaved Africans exported to other countries.
3. Between 16th & 19th century, ≈ 10 million Africans shipped to the Americas.
Africa and the Africans in the Age of the Atlantic Slave Trade
o -Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua – symbol of slavery, Muslim trader, African slavery, African slave trade, Missionary -autobiography – An Interesting Narrative: Biography of Mahommah G. Baquaqua
o Impacted Islam 1st→African developed at own pace, W had big impact
o Influence of Europe: path of Africa becomes linked to European world economy, diaspora – mass exodus of people leaving homeland
o Slave trade dominated interactions - not all of Africa affected to the same degree
o Effects of global interactions: Forced movement of Africans improved W. economies, transfer of African culture → adapted to create new culture - most of African still remained politically independent
o Trends: Islam ↑ position in East, Christianity stayed in Ethiopia, Growth of African kingdoms
o Portuguese contacts set patterns for contact with African coast
o -factories – forts and trading post with resident merchants - most important – El Mina (1482) in heart of gold – producing region of forest zone - allowed Portuguese to exercise some control with few personnel
o most forts were established with consent of local rulers – benefited from access to European commodities & sometimes from military support the Portuguese provided in local wars.
o Portuguese received ivory, pepper, animal skins, and gold
o Portuguese & African – Portuguese mulatto traders struck out into interior to establish trade contacts and collection points - commerce leads to political, social, religious relations
o Impressed by power of many interior kingdoms – Benin
o Attempts at Christian conversion - Kongo most successful – king(Nzinga Mvemba) and kingdom converted - Ambassadors/exchange of ideas – relationship ends when Kongo people get enslaved
o 1st contact – preconceptions, appreciation, curiosity, Portuguese looked strange, some tribes started portraying them artistically
o Portuguese exploration toward Cape of Good Hope and beyond - set up Portuguese settlements on the West coast
o Luanda -1570s basis for Portuguese colony of Angola
o Goal = primarily commercial/military, but also missionary
o Patterns of contact –established by Portuguese were followed by others, 17th century - Dutch, English, French + others compete with Portuguese - Portuguese displaced them to some extent but fortified trading stations
o combination of force and diplomacy - alliances w/ local rulers
o predominance of commercial relations - $ = uniting factor – continued as principal pattern of European contact w/ Africa
o Slavery existed in Rome, replaced by serfdom in Middle Ages → Brought to Mediterranean intermittently by Iberian peninsula →After 1441, became common trading item b/c trade more effective than raids → slave trade was given added motivation:
1. sugar plantations in Atlantic islands off Africa creates need
-demanded many workers and constant labor under difficult conditions, usually in tropical or sub-tropical environment
2. Later adapted to Americas then to other crops
o Most slave exports: 1700-1800 in Trans-Atlantic trade/1800-1900 in E Africa & Indian Ocean& S. Sahara & Red Sea
o 1450-1850 – about 12 million slaves shipped
o Mortality rate 10-20% on ships -about 10 or 11 million Africans actually arrive in Americas -Millions more die in capture process/resulting wars
o Great Age of Atlantic slave trade in 18th century – 7 million
-Reason for high volume: Mortality rates high/Fertility low (partly because more men than women were imported)/ Reproduction level higher in S. USA/temperate climate/few worked in most dangerous and unhealthy occupations/Different labor – not sugar plantations, mining/Reproduction encouraged/Milder climate/More concentration - 80-90% of pop in British and French Caribbean
o Sugar made Caribbean major terminal/destination
o Regions of concentration: Brazil/Caribbean major destinations
o 3 million slaves also as part of Red Sea, Muslim trade, trans-Sahara
o Most African Slaves went to Brazil
o Trans-Saharan focused on women for concubines and domestic servants - Atlantic slave trade concentrated on men
o not eager to risk buying children – high levels of mortality
o African societies that sold captives into slavery liked to keep women/children as domestic slaves or to extend existing kin groups
o Atlantic trade seems to have Demographic impact –certain parts of W & central Africa
o Population cut by 50% (1850 pop. Of 25 million cut in half)
o captive women and children skewed the proportion of women to men in African enslaving societies
o Atlantic trade developed - New crops – maize/manioc allowed numbers to recover from losses to slave trade
o As Dutch/British emerge as power in Europe – want control of slave trade
o British – Royal African Company -Each has agents and forts - Merchant towns
o Mortality rates quite high – tropical diseases - malaria
o Connections between Europeans and African traders - European agents had to deal directly with local rulers – pay tax/ offer gift - Indies piece – basis of currency = adult male, everything related to that
o Some African/mulatto agents purchased captives interior taxed movement of slaves - some states tried to establish monopolies
o Collaboration – European or African domination
o Slave trade profitable - as much as 300% for a single slaving voyage, but dangerous, with risks
o On average 5-10% growth, better than other business activities - not a major source of the capital needed in the Industrial Revolution
o huge part of triangular trade – slaves carried to Americas; sugar, tobacco, & other goods carried to Europe; and European products were sent to coast of Africa to begin triangle again - emerging capitalism in Atlantic world
o Africa – slave trade drew economies into dependence on trade with Europeans and suppressed growth of other economic activities - 40% of all slaves that crossed Atlantic embarked during century after 1760
o plantation economies of Brazil, Caribbean, southern United States were booming in 19th century → increased production → Huge part of increasingly integrated world economy
o amigos del país – Clubs and associations dedicated to improvements and reform in Spanish colonies; flourished during the 18th century; called for material improvements rather than political reform.
o War of the Spanish Succession (1702 – 1713) – Resulted from Bourbon family’s succession to Spanish throne in 1701; ended by Treaty of Utrecht in 1713; resulted in recognition of Bourbons, loss of some lands, grants of comercial rights to English and French.
o Charles III (r. 1759 – 1788) – Spanish enlightened monarch; ruled from 1759 to 1788; instituted fiscal, administrative, and military reforms in Spain and its empire.
o Jóse de Gálvez – Spanish minister of the West Indies and chief architect of colonial reform; moved to eliminate Creoles from upper bureaucracy of the colonies; created intendants for local governments.
o Comunero Revolt – One of popular revolts against Spanish colonial rule in New Granada (Columbia) in 1781; suppressed as a result of divisions among rebels. factories – Portuguese trading fortresses and compounds with resident merchants; utilized throughout Portuguese trading empire to assure secure landing places and commerce
o El Mina (1482) – Most important of early Portuguese trading factories in forest zone of Africa.
o Nzinga Mvemba – King of Kongo south of Zaire River from 1507 to 1543; converted to Christianity and took title Alfonso I; under Portuguese influence attempted to Christianize all of kingdom.
o Luanda – Portuguese factory established in 1520s south of Kongo; became basis for Portuguese colony of
Angola.
o Royal African Co. – Chartered in 1660s to establish a monopoly over the slave trade among British merchants; supplied African slaves to colonies in Barbados, Jamaica, and Virginia.
o Indies piece – Term utilized within the complex Exchange system established by the Spanish for African trade; referred to the value of an adult male slave.
o triangular trade – Commerce linking Africa, the New World colonies, and Europe; slaves carried to America
for sugar and tobacco transported to Europe.
THE 18TH-CENTURY REFORMS - Period of intellectual ferment in Spain and Portugal as well as in their empires
o amigos del país – friends of the country – clubs that discussed reforms
-Goal = economic benefits
o Brief period of growth followed by decline
o expansion of European population
o -increased demand for American products
-much of change from both empires resulted as much from the changing European economic and demographic realities as from new ideas
o Spain: foreign wars, increasing debts, declining population, internal revolts, Pressure from France, England, and Dutch
o Buccaneers, owing allegiance to no nation, raided Caribbean ports in late 17th century
o English took Jamaica in 1654, French took control of western Hispaniola (Haiti) by 1697, other islands fell to English, French, and Dutch
o Settlements – part of general process of colonization
-English – eastern North America
-French – occupation of Canada and Mississippi valley
-Failure of Spanish mercantile and political system
o annual fleets became irregular, silver payments from America ↓, most goods shipped to West Indies + ships that carried them were non-Spanish in origin
o Colonies became self-sufficient - local aristocrats increasing control over economy + government of their
regions - corruption –widespread in many branches of gov.
o Final Crisis – 1701 – Spanish king, Charles II, died w/o heir →War of the Spanish Succession (1702 – 1713)
o Treaty of Utrecht – 1713 – French merchants gain more control, Bourbon king unable to unite France/Spain
o The Bourbon Reforms - Charles III -Causes of reform: age of “enlightened despotism”, strong centralized gov.’t, make gov.’t more effective, powerful, and better able to direct economy, groups/institutions that opposed might be punished or suppressed, Jesuits expelled from Spain and its empire – 1767
→Improvements: French bureaucratic models introduced, sys. of taxation was tightened, navy was reformed & new ships built, convoy fleet system was abandoned, new ports opened in Spain + America for West Indies trade 1778
o Reform in West Indies
-new viceroyalties were created in New Granada (1739 and Rio de la Plata (1778) to provide better administration + defense to growing populations of these regions
-Jóse de Gálvez – spent six years in Mexico before returning to Spain to become Minister of the Indies and a chief architect of reform
-moved to eliminate Creoles from upper bureaucracy of the colonies - new offices created
-after 1780 – corregidores(local magistrates) removed from Indian villages – replaced by new system of intendants, or provincial - governors, based on French models
o Reforms in America
o Defense and military reforms: frontiers were expanded, Missions and outposts in frontier areas – California, Rio de la Plata, foreign competitors were resisted by militarily means
o Bourbon reforms
-gov.'t took active role in economy - state monopolies were established for items the gov.’t considered essential - tobacco and gunpowder
-Spanish and English goods became cheaper and more accessible
-undercut locally produced goods so that some regions that had
specialized in producing cloth or other goods were unable to
compete with European imports
-conflict free trade vs. local industry
Ø Impact of Changes -revived Spanish Empire, removal of Creoles from gov.’t, creation of a militia with Creole officer corps, other changes contributed to a growing sense of dissatisfaction among the elite
o Pombal and Brazil
-administration of Marquis of Pombal (1755 – 1776) –Portugal’s prime minister
-Pombal’s reforms: fiscal reforms aimed at eliminating contraband, gold smuggling, and tax evasion
-monopoly companies were formed to stimulate agricultural in older plantation zones + given right to import large numbers of slaves – Amazon
-removed Indians from missionary control in Amazon and encourage whites to marry them
Ø Impact of Pombal’s reforms: reduced Portugal’s trade imbalance with England, Brazilian trade suffered b/c demand for its products on world market remained low, hard to compete in European market, provided structure for economic boom in last 20 yrs. of the 18th century that set the stage for Brazilian independence
o 18th Century – American boom- Reforms, Reactions, and Revolts
-population ↑
-↓ mortality rates
-↑fertility rates
-↑ immigration from Europe
-↑ slave trade
- Changes in power - Greater control from Spain/Portugal annoyed old power elite
-Urban uprisings, tax revolts, Indian uprisings
-New Granada (present day Columbia)
-Comunero Revolt – royal army defeated, viceroy fled from Bogota, and rebel army almost took the capital
-Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui (Tupac Amaru) - Tupac Amaru – mestizo in Peru
-Led a rebellion against “bad gov.’t” - 70,000 Indians, Mestizos and Creoles – eventually executed - rebellion smoldered until 1783
-Activism by gov.’t, Dissatisfaction of American colonies, sharp ethnic divisions made it difficult to unify locals →complaints and frustration
EVENTS
1400s
1441 First shipment of African slaves brought directly from Africa to Portugal
1451 Portuguese capture Ceuta (Morocco); beginning of European expansion
1481 Portuguese fort established at El Mina
1493-1520 Exploration & settlement in the Caribbean
1492 Fall of Granada, last Muslim kingdom in Spain; expulsion of the Jews; Columbus in the Caribbean
1493 Columbus’s second expedition
1494 Treaty of Tordesilla
1500s
1500 Cabral lands in Brazil
1519 – 1524 Cortes leads conquest of Mexico
1525- Most of central Mexico under Spanish control- Kingdom of New Spain; Francisco Pizarro began the conquest of the Inca Empire.
1533 Cuzco, Peru falls to Francisco Pizarro - Spanish built their capital at Lima.
1540- Most of Peru was under Spanish control.
1540s- Francisco Vazquez de Coronado explored the American SW.
1541 Santiago, Chile founded (Pedro de Valdivia conquered it)
1540 – 1542 Coronado explores SW US
1549 Royal gov.’t established in Brazil
1562 Beginnings of English slave trade
1570 Portuguese establish colony in Angola
1591 Fall of Songhay Empire
1580 – 1640 Spain and Portugal united under same rulers
1570- 1592 Spanish urban settlements in the Americas.
1600s
1630 – 1654 Dutch capture NE Brazil
1652 Dutch establish colony at Cape of Good Hope
1654 English take Jamaica
Gold discovered in Brazil
1702 – 1713 War of the Spanish Succession; Bourbon Dynasty rules Spain
1700s -Enlightenment
1700 – 1717 Osei Tutu unifies the Asante kingdom
1713 English get right to import slaves to Spanish Empire
1720s Rise of the kingdom of Dahomey
1712-1786 Fredrick the Great of Prussia -Enlightened despotism
1730 - 1850 Population boom in EUR
1733 James Kay invents flying shuttle loom
1736 beginnings of Methodism
1755 – 1776 Marquis of Pombal, prime minister of Portugal
1759 Jesuits expelled from Brazil
1756 – 1763 Seven Years’ War
1759 – 1788 Carlos III rules Spain; Bourbon reforms
1763 Brazilian capital moved to Rio de Janeiro
1767 Jesuits expelled from Spanish America
1776 Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations
1781 Comunero revolt in New Granada; Tupac Amaru rebellion in Peru
1788 Conspiracy for independence in Minas Gerais
1792 Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of Women
1790s Abolitionist movement gains strength in England
1792 Slave uprising in Haiti
1800s
1804 Usuman Dan Fodio leads Hausa expansion
1815 Cape colony comes under formal British control
1818 – 1828 Shaka forges Zulu power and expansion; Mfecane under way
1833 Great Britain abolishes slavery in the West Indies
1834 Boers make “Great Trek” into Natal
IMPORTANT FIGURES TO KNOW:
o Copernicus: Polish monk who introduced idea of "heliocentrism"
o Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630): - study of planetary motion
- from a poor family; father abandoned family, mother tried for witchcraft
- entered university on scholarship aiming for Lutheran ministry, but drawn to astronomy & mathematics
- worked on optics; practiced astrology - made horoscopes for rich patrons
o Galileo (1564-1642): - proves heliocentrism
- findings on laws of gravity & planetary motion
o John Harvey (1578-1657): demonstrated circular motion of blood in animals w/ ♥ as pumping station
o René Descartes: (1596-1690)- established the importance of a skeptical review of all received wisdom, arguing that
human reason could develop laws that would explain fundamental workings of nature
-Famous French mathematician, scientist, and philosopher; first philosopher to describe
physical universe in terms of matter and motion; wrote “Principles of Philosophy” and
“Discourse on Method”; created analytic geometry and his famous quote is “I think,
therefore I am”
o John Locke: August 29, 1632- October 28, 1704 – Bristol, ENG
- argued that people could learn everything they needed to know through their senses & reason - faith = irrelevant
- argued that power came from the people not from a divine right to rule – therefore kings should be
restrained by institutions that protected the public interest, i.e. general rights to freedom & property
- Wrote essays “Two Treaties” and “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” in 1690 that created new
perspective of philosophy from analysis of reality to
- exploration of the mind and experience is the source of knowledge
o Adam Smith (1723- 1790): - Scottish philosopher that wrote The Wealth of Nations – set forth principles of economic
behavior
- argued that people act according to their self-interests, but thru competition, people
would promote general economic advance
- Most recognized for the book, “Wealth of Nations,” which explains dynamics of economy
and how to improve it
*laissez Faire- modern day capitalism (less government involvement and more supply and demand
o Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784): - multifaceted leader of French Enlightenment
- Known for editorial work on Encyclopedié – compiled scientific & social knowledge
- Trained initially by Jesuits – wrote widely on philosophy, mathematics, & psychology of
death-mutes
- traveled to foreign courts as advisor & visiting intellectual
o Mary Wollstonecraft: (1759-1797) - English feminist thinker argued that political rights & freedoms should extend to
women
- She wrote “A Vindication of Rights of Women,” which promoted educational equality for women and influenced future women’s rights activist in 1840s
o Sor Juana de la Cruz: - November 15, 1651- April 17, 1695 - Lived in Mexico City
- set precedents for feminism before it existed as a nun; wrote poetry (first Latin American poet); prodigy at age of 8 and composed “Loa” (short dramatic poem)
o Marquis of Pombal (1699- 1782): - Lived in Lisbon, Portugal
- Portuguese ambassador to Vienna, with a mission of serving as a mediator in the solution of a serious quarrel between Holy Roman Empire, Maria Terea, and the Vatican; became a powerful, progressive dictator
– Prime minister of Portugal from 1755 to 1776; acted to strength royal authority in Brazil; expelled Jesuits; enacted fiscal reforms and established monopoly companies to stimulate the colonial economy.
o Anton von Leeuwenhoek: - October 24, 1632- August 26, 1723 - Delft, Netherlands
- Discovered single-celled organisms, sperm cells, protest and bacteria; invented 270x
microscope
o Madame de Geoffrin (1699- 1777) - Paris:
- Was French Enlightenment Salonniere who hosted intellectual conversations
- between important philosophers and artists in her salon in Hotel de Rambovillet
o Frederick the Great: January 24, 1712- August 17, 1786 - Prussia
- Was an enlightened despot and a great military leader that conquered a lot of land
o Thomas Malthus: (1766- 1821) - Lived in England
- Most famous for his writing an essay of “The Principle of Population” as it affects the future
improvement of society; reverend in Europe
o Thomas Hobbes: (1588-1679) - Lived in England
-Was a philosopher and most famous for his book, “Leviathon”; supports absolute monarchy
-Was an advocate for political reform through his essays such as “The Social Contract”; the French
Revolution was sparked by his ideas after his death; believed general will was what people will run
modern government with: democracy
o Robert Hooke: (1635 – 1703) - Lived in England
- 1st person to use the word “cell” to describe the cavities in cork; discovered law of electricity; leading member of the Royal Society
o Voltaire: (1694-1778) - Lived in Caen, Normandy
- Was the most significant figure for the French during the time period; was famous for poetry and sarcastic and analytical plays; against the Church (Deist- Christian that believed God left us alone and we’re in charge)
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