A Nerd's Study Guides: APWH - IMPERIALISM & L. AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS

CLASS NOTES:

Imperialism = colonialism on steroids

*Began in 1839 when Europe realizes that they are the strongest part of the world after they fought the Chinese during the first Opium War

- INDIA: subcontinent peninsula, has raw materials, heavily populated, regional government, controlled by Great Britain

- CHINA: every imperialized country; caused by their lost in the Opium War (1839-1841)

o All countries hate imperialism → led to rebellions

ü China: Boxer and Tai Ping rebellion (Sun Yat Sen孫逸仙)

ü SE Asia: Vietnam War

ü Africa: Bohr Rebellion (Nelson Mandela)

ü India: Mutiny and Sepoy Rebellion (Mahatma Gandhi)

Nation-States that Imperialize Others (1940s-1914)

1. Great Britain: largest empire in history (the sun never sets in the British empire) 25-35% GNP (gross national product)--> maritime empire

2. Germany: wants status of superpower

3. France: declining superpower since Napoleon; dominates SE Asia

4. USA: emerging superpower, dominates Western Hemisphere using the "Monroe Doctrine"

5. Russia: declining empire, behind in technology, first European Power to lose to an Asian power

6. Japan: emerging Asian power, Meiji Restoration gives it independence and industrialization

European motivation (New Imperialism)

1. Economics

- Self sufficiency

- New markets

- inventing surplus capital

2. Status (Germany)

3. Outlets for population

4. Nationalism & culture

5. European racism "Social Darwinism"

6. “White Man's Burden” (poet Runyard Dupling)

7. Missionary work

SPHERES OF INFLUENCE:

Many countries wanted piece of China
USA becomes imperializing power and becomes Open Power Policy

NON-ECONOMIC REASONS OF IMPERIALISM:

Status Racism
Nationalism Social Darwinism
Missionary work White Man’s Burden

Places Imperialized

- Indian peninsula (S Asia): wealthiest colony

- China: shared by imperializing colonies

- Middle East and North Africa: becomes important in the 20th century with discovery of oil

- SE Asia: loses importance over time

- Latin America: independent but NOT

- Sub-Saharan Africa: last place imperialized and that gains independence

India (mid 1800s-1947)
- Features of the area: highly populated (large markets), decentralize (lots of kingdoms); declining mughal dynasty in Northern India
- Mother Country: Britain (becomes sole European power with defeat of France in 7 Years War) First private company: British East India Company colonized (example of Robert Clive) by late 1800s British government takes over
- Rebellion vs Imperialism and years: Indian mutiny (Sepoy Rebellion)
- Nationalistic Movement and people involved and years. Gains strength after WWI. Indian National Congress, Mohatma Gandhi, Jawarlat Nehru (first Indian prime minister and Muhammad Ali Jinzah (first Pakistan president)
- Independence: years and people involved and how achieved: Partition of Indian, Mandate by British in 1947 after WWII
China (1839-1911) - "order over freedom"
- Features of Area: large area, large population, many natural resources and raw materials
- Mother Country: Various (Spheres of Influence 1839-1899 then open Door Policy supported by USA when all can go anywhere)
- Rebellion vs Imperialism and years: Taiping Rebellion and Boxer Rebellion
- Nationalistic Movement and people involved and years: Sun Yatsen, The Kuomintang, Chiang Kaishek
- Independence: years and people involved and how achieved: Granted republic status in 1911
JAPAN
"adapt, adept, adopt"
Africa (late 1800s- late 1900s)
- Features of Area: last place to be imperialized--> difficult to get to interior, extremely large area so we divide into North, West, Central, East, and Southeast Africa; little interactions between the areas
- Country imperialized: all over, first along the coast (colonization and slave trade) then by early 1900s into the interior
- Mother Country: numerous = "Scramble for Africa"; British have larger holdings (especially South Africa and Egypt)
- Rebellions vs Imperialism and years: numerous/various (ex: Boer War)
- Nationalist Movement: various (Jomo Kenyatta in East Africa and Nelson Mandela in South Africa)
- Independence: mostly after WWII all the way till today (except South Africa)
Berlin Conference of 1884-1885:
- 14 European nations lay down rules for division of Africa
- rest of the continent divided with little thought of linguistic and cultural concerns
- no Africans represented
- by 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia remained free of European control

LATIN AMERICA (independent but imperialized)
Geography: divided into 4 main sections: Mexico, Central America (Gran Colombia), South America (Brazil and Argentina), and Caribbean islands
**Similarities through Latin America Imperialism despite the geographical locations
Period I - Revolutions (early 1800s)
1. slave (Haiti)
2. Creole (throughout the rest of Latin America)
Period 2- Emergence of Caudillos (dictators) and Juntas (military regimes) mid 1800s-late 1900s AND USA Intervention (ex. Panama Canal)
1. Conservatives- traditional values and order (keep social structure and religion from time of colonialism)
2. Liberals- power for average people
85% of time, the Conservatives won and sided with the caudillos and juntas
They get rid of Spain and Portugal (independent) but are dependent to caudillos, juntas, and USA (yet imperialized)
EFFECTS OF L. AMERICAN IMPERIALISM:
- independence did not include freedom for many
- slavery continued still exists
- there was no emergence of a significant middle class, many peasants worked on huge plantations owned by a few wealthy landowners
- emergence of caudillos (military dictators)
- the Catholic Church protected the status quo because it held a lot of land in L. A
- L.A. countries continued to participate in European mercantilism and exported a few specialized cash crops
- there were some exceptions to this: Chile diversified its economy and Brazil and Argentina saw a growing middle class (usually for transplanted and descendant Europeans)
- for most L.A. countries, it was more than 100 years until reforms took place

CAUDILLOS:

mostly wealthy creole aristocracy
last short periods of time (overthrown) --> like a cycle
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS:
- feuds among leaders
- geographic barriers
- the social hierachy continued from the past
- conservatives favored the old social order
- liberal wanted land reform
USA INTERVENTION:
- U.S dominated affairs in the Americas
1823: Monroe Doctrine
US takes Texas and Mexican Cession
US gains independence for Cuba
Roosevelt Carallary - US will police the Americas
US sent troops to Cuba, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua
US built Panama Canal- "Yankee Imperialism

Middle East Before WWI
- Ottoman Empire- Sick Man of Europe" (1828-1908) controls much of the Middle East but regional powers are rising constantly
- Greek Independence (1821-1830)
- Egyptian near conquest of Ottomans until foreign intervention prevents this (1831-33)
- Crimean (Black Se Peninsula) War vs Russian (get British and French help) -1853- Russian expansion stopped-modern hospitals develop (Florence Nightingale), early example of modern warfare & precursor to violence that will occur in future conflicts like WWI
EGYPT- BEFORE WWI
- Egyptian independence from Ottomans-war 1831-33
- Suez Canal built and funded by Great Britain and France- "pathway to India" 1859-1869

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THE SHIFT TO LAND EMPIRES IN ASIA
                -Mid 18th century onward - European powers began to build true empires in Asia similar    to those they had established in Americas beginning in 16th century
                -Initially limited interest of Europeans to control regions – too expensive
                -Communication realities prevented centralized control – led to local administration
Prototype: The Dutch Advance on Java
                -Initially Dutch paid tribute to Mataram sultans
                                -Mataram: Kingdom that controlled interior regions of Java in 17th century:                                            Dutch East India Company paid tribute to the kingdom for rights of trade at                                       Batavia; weakness of kingdom after 1670s allowed Dutch to exert control over all                       of Java.
                                -Dutch East India Co. worked w/in system
                -Later - backed Mataram sultans in intertribal conflicts
                                -Every time Dutch helped out, they demanded more land
                                                -Dutch backing needed due to their organization, weapons, discipline                                                  -Finally in 1750s, ended with Dutch-dictated division of the kingdom that                                                                signified Dutch control of the entire island
                                                -Java - transformed into core of an Asian empire that would last 200 yrs.
Pivot of World Empire: The Rise of The British Rule In India
-Initially British East India Company worked with rulers
                -British - adopt practice pioneered by French --> relied heavily on Indian troops, sepoys
                -sepoys: Troops that served the British East India Company; recruited from various                warlike peoples of India.
-Later – backed territorial claims, princes used Europeans to settle disputes
                -The ones being used then become the users
-Unlike Dutch however, British Raj (gov’t) came from French/British rivalries
                -British Raj: British political establishment in India; developed as a result of the rivalry b/w France and Britain in India.
                -18th century – France/Britain in 5 wars, British won them all, with exception of the                American War of Independence (1775-1782)
-Key battle – 1757 Plassey
                -Plassey: Battle in 1757 between troops of the British East India Company and an Indian army under Siraj ud-daula, ruler of Bengal; British victory resulted in control of     northern India
                -fewer than 3000 British under Robert Clive defeat 50,000 Indians
                -Robert Clive: Architect of British victory at Plassey; established foundations of British Raj in northern India (18th century)
                -Victory not merely based on numbers issue
                                -Clive's well paid Indian spies - given him detailed accounts of divisions in Siraj ud-daula's ranks in the months before battle
                                -Brits used Hindu banker money to pay off Indians
                                -Method of getting back at Muslims
                -Teenage nawab Siraj doesn’t have control of force
                                -they defect or refuse to fight

The Consolidation of British Rule
-Mughal Empire gradually breaks down under wars with East India Company
                -As Brits took more land, Indian princes fought other lands to get territory
                                -India reducedBritish control
                -Madras, Bombay, Calcutta – administrative centers of three presidencies
                -presidencies:Three districts that made up the bulk of the directly ruled British territories in India; capitals at Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay.
                -Local leaders of princely states had to report to British administrators
                -princely states: Domains of Indian princes allied with the British Raj; agents of East               India Company were stationed at the rulers' courts to ensure compliance; made up over 1/3 of the British Indian Empire.
-Reasons for British takeover
                -Muslims/Hindus don’t unite under national identity
                -Some Indians liked fighting for British – brighter uniforms, better weapons, higher and more regular pay, better treatment
                                -5 to 1 Indians serving British to actual British soldiers
-India’s large population made it the key to great empire
                -Indian soldiers sent to punish Chinese + Afghans, conquer Burma + Malaya
                -India - became market for investments, manufactured goods
                -Major source of raw materials
Early Colonial Society in India
-Initially maintained existing social structure
                -Just placed traders/officials above existing system
-Tried to bring Europe over to Asia, but not always with success
                -Can’t do the whole Dutch canal thing in Indonesia with mosquitoes
                -Adapted to varying degrees: dress, eating, work habits
                                -Some refused - continued to wool clothes in S. East Asia
                                -Adopted food, hookahs/water pipes, Indian dancing
-Racial divide
                -Society had racial discrimination
                -Europeans/Asians mixed – mostly men colonize
Social Reform in the Colonies
-Initially – maintained religion of existing group
                -Kept Hindu caste system – refused entry to missionaries(little interest in spreading                 Christianity)
-nabobs – corrupt British leaders who made money while overseas
                -nabobs: Name given to British representatives of the East India Company who went         briefly to India to make fortunes through graft and exploitation.
                -1770 - Bengal famine kills 1/3 population – obvious reforms needed
                -Lord Charles Cornwallis – took out local autonomy – report directly to Britain
                                -Lord Charles Cornwallis: Reformer of the East India Company administration of                  India in the 1790s; reduced power of local British administrators; checked                                                                widespread corruption.
                                -also mistrusted Indians, made wholesale changes
-Why the push for change?
                -Utilitarian philosophers(ex. Jeremy Bentham + James Mill) – England has best system – why not share?
                -Evangelical religious revival – reform the heathens
-How?
                -Push for education
                -English-Language Education
                -Large-scale infusion of Western technology
                -Get rid of sati(ritual burning of Hindu widows on funeral pyres of their deceased husbands) – 1830s
                                -w/ help from western educated Indian leaders – Ram Mohun Roy
                                -Ram Mohun Roy: Western-educated Indian leader, early 19th century; cooperated with British to outlaw sati.
                                -Threatened with physical punishment if they applied sati
-Changes – transplanted Western industrial/political revolutions
                -Western ideas, inventions, modes of organization, technology
                -Drawn into global network
                -At schools, model behavior on European exercise, reading, scientific learning
                -Ironically…values taught to Indians, used against colonizers later
Industrial Rivalries and the Partition of the World, 1870-1914
-Science/industrial advantages led to European competition between states
                -Beginning 19th century – Britain’s navy makes dominant
                -Belgium, France, Germany, US competing for power
-Reasons for colonial expansion
                -Status as great power
                -insurance against raw material shortages + loss of overseas market outlets to European/North American rivals
                -Markets for manufactured goods – needed to keep economies growing
                                -European countries suffering from overproduction and unemployment
                -political theorists argued that colonies could be destinations for unemployed
                                -markets for surplus goods
-Central political leaders took more direct control over running colonies
                -improved communication – telegraph + railways
                -No longer could an explorer alone ratify agreements
                                -led to fierce parliamentary debates
-press wars + popular demonstrations
-Empires had become property and pride of the nations of Europe and North America

Industrial Rivalries and the Partition of the World, 1870 -1914

o Science/industrial advantages led to EUR competition b/w states

o First half of 19^th century, Britain was left alone to dominate, but during the last decades of the century, Belgium, FRA, GER, & USA arose to challenge Britain’s supremacy

o saw that colonies =

ü status as great power

ü raw materials

ü where unemployed workers could go

ü markets for manufactured goods (+ surplus goods) – needed to keep economies growing

o late 19^th century = period of recurring economic depressions in EUR & US – leaders had little experience dealing w/ overproduction + unemployment, were deeply concerned about social unrest + stirrings of revolutions

o decisions to annex overseas territory b/c of better communication technology (ex. telegraphs, railways) that made it possible to transmit orders faster from capitals in EUR to their representatives in the tropics

ü explorers couldn’t ratify agreements by themselves – had to gain approval from gov.’t →led to fierce parliamentary debates

o development of mass journalism & extension of vote to lower middle class + working class made public opinion a major factor in foreign policy

Unequal Combat: Colonial Wars and the Apex of European Imperialism

o Advances due to Industrial Revolution:

ü Access to minerals others didn’t know existed

ü Chemists create even more powerful explosives

ü Metallurgy – mass production of light, mobile artillery = dominancy over cavalry +infantry of Asian & African armies

ü More accurate hand weapons (faster firing breech-loading rifles replaced muskets)

ü Machine gun as effective battlefield weapon in 1880s

ü Railroads made Europeans more mobile than Asian/African armies

ü Opening of Suez Canal

ü Improved ships - Steam engines (instead of sails), iron hulls, massive guns (w/ far shooting range)

o Areas of Africa/Pacific Islands fought with spears, arrows, leather shields

o some areas resisted:

ü Vietnamese guerillas fought back when leaders refused

ü Zulus defeated British at Isandhlwana (in S. Africa) in 1879 (3000 Zulus, 800 British + 500 Africans died)

Ø But…eventually they would lose ¾ wins the battle, but no way they can win the war

o Only successful methods of resistance:

ü guerrilla warfare, sabotage, banditry = only match for superior weapons

ü Sometimes spiritual leaders gave encouragement to locals to soothe demoralizing superior weapons of the Europeans

ü ex. Ghost Dance (in late 19^th century) in American West, Maji Maji uprisings in GER E. Africa (1907), Boxer Rebellion in China (1898)

Patterns of Dominance: Continuity and Change

Type of Colony	Definition/Characteristics	Examples
Tropical dependencies	ü small # of Europeans rule a ton of locals ü colonies brought under rule suddenly in late 19th/early 20th century	Africa, Asia, S. Pacific
Settlement colonies	ü White Dominions – huge % of land, low % of population Small # of natives, whites majority ü Natives killed by disease/wars of conquest	US, Canada, Australia, Chile, Argentina
COMBO settlement colony variation	ü Large indigenous population + large # of immigrants ü Numerous clashes over land rights	S. Africa, New Zealand, Hawaii, Algeria, Kenya

Capitalism & Colonialism:

o Greatest % of Total British Investment: (1) “White” Dominions, (2)USA, (3)India, (4) S. Africa, (5)Rest of EUR

o Greatest % Total of British Imports & Products:

1) Rest of EUR	Foodstuffs, Manufactures
2) USA	Foodstuffs, Manufactures
3) ”White” Dominions	Wool, Foodstuffs, Ores, Textiles
4) GER	Manufactures
5) India	Cotton, Jute, Narcotics, Tea, Other Comestibles

o Greatest % of British Exports & Products:

1) Rest of EUR	Textiles, Machinery, Manufactures
2) “White” Dominions	Machinery, Textiles, Foodstuffs
3) India	Machinery, Coal, Comestibles
4) GER	Manufactures, Foodstuffs
5) USA	Manufactures

Colonial Regimes and Social Hierarchies in the Tropical Dependencies

o Followed pattern of India: played ethnic/cultural divisions against one another

o West/East Africa – Animists and Christians vs. Muslims

o divisions called “tribes” – dehumanizing

o favored minorities (often Christians) were recruited into the civil service & police

o Whites lived in capital/provincial cities, local leaders then reported to Europeans

o Some were Western educated, but education not as pushed in Africa due to racism → Lack of college graduates → lack of a middle class

o Learned from mistakes in India + Asian colonies where the creation educated classes in other colonies start revolts – even greater reason to not promote education

o desired jobs beyond some people’s capacity due to lack of education → get annoyed due to unemployment

Changing Social Relations Between Colonizer and Colonized

o As time passed, Europeans became more isolated from locals

o Women were brought over

o safer conditions emerged in colonies – health care/segregated living quarters → ↑wives, family of gov.’t officials + military officers brought over

o Discouraged interaction with locals (women looked down on liaisons b/w European men & Asian/African women) – brothels attended less

o mostly fault of males for ↑ social gap b/w colonizers + colonized

ü Passed laws against miscegenation

ü Kept contacts between white women and locals to minimum (women had native nannies or servants, but that was it)

o Only interaction with high ranking natives was at formal occasions

o Notions of white racial supremacy: belief that whites were mentally + morally superior over the rest of mankind, usually based on skin color (demonstrated by scientific “experiments”) – late 19th century

o Ranking of races put whites on top – Social Darwinism (societies either prospered/failed b/c only the strongest survive and are able to dominate the weak, thus EUR +Americans are better than Asians + Africans and have the right to impose economic + political will on them)

o Differences between ruler and ruled was inherent

o Recreated European life, and spent summers in hill communities – luxurious lifestyle

Shifts in Methods of Economic Extraction

o Attempts to expand export production:

ü Teach natives scientific management and encourage to work harder

ü offer incentives

o More money to buy cheap consumer goods

o Head/hut taxes must be paid from ivory, palm nuts or wages

o Forced labor in Belgium Congo was worst – people beaten and killed if didn’t reach quotas, women and children held hostage to ensure men would deliver demanded products on time

o Infrastructure created for sole purpose of moving natural resources

o New areas of cultivation and mining - precious metals + minerals from Africa, rubber from Malaya

o Raw materials shipped by merchants to be processed in Europe

o Finished goods sold to Europeans

o Local economies don’t benefit from entire process

o Existed for the purpose of making Europeans able to buy cheap, desired stuff

Ø colonies were subjugated politically and socially, but also economically

Settler Colonies in South Africa and the Pacific

o Settlers arrived in the seventeenth century in South Africa and in Canada and Australia in the 1840s.

o Unlike in Canada, the Dutch in Africa and the settlers in Australia did not move far inland for decades.

o In all three regions they discovered temperate climates and few dangerous diseases.

o Afrikaners enslaved and interbred with the Khoikhoi and San.

South Africa

o Patterns diverged once the British took control of South Africa.

o The Afrikaners were culturally different from the British.

o They resisted British pressure to end slavery.

o The differences caused many Afrikaners to move inland to regions occupied by Bantu peoples.

o The struggles between the two produced regional instability that led to British involvement.

o The Afrikaners formed two interior republics during the 1850s and remained independent until the discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold (1885) renewed tensions that culminated with Afrikaner defeat in 1902.

Pacific Tragedies

o The coming of colonial rule in the South Pacific resulted in demographic disaster.

o The local population lacked immunities to European diseases.

o In New Zealand, the first Europeans, timber merchants and whalers, established themselves among the Maori during the 1790s.

o Alcoholism and prostitution spread.

o The Maori suffered from the effects of firearms.

o The Maoris survived and began to adjust to the effect of the foreigners.

o They followed European-style farming and cut timber for export.

o Many converted to Christianity.

o A new contact period commenced in the early 1850s when British farmers and herders arrived.

o They occupied fertile regions and drove the Maoris into the interior.

o Hawaii was opened to the West during the 1770s.

o James Cook and later arrivals convinced Hawaiian Prince Kamehameha to accept

o Western influences and create a unified state.

o With British help, he won a kingdom by 1810.

o Kamehameha encouraged Western merchants to export Hawaiian goods in return for increasing royal revenues.

o Protestant American Christians won many converts; they changed indigenous customs and established a school system.

o Westerners introduced diseases that decimated the population.

o The monarchy encouraged Western businesses and imposed Western concepts.

o American planters took advantage of weak rulers after 1872 to press for annexation; the last ruler was deposed in 1893 and Hawaii passed to the United States in 1898.

o Most Latin American nations gained independence from colonial control early in the nineteenth century.

o The political culture of its leaders had been shaped by the Enlightenment, but they faced problems growing from their own history.

o Class and regional interests divided nations; wealth was unevenly distributed.

o The rise of European industrial capitalism placed Latin American nations in a dependent economic position.

From Colonies to Nations

o By the late eighteenth century, Creole elites questioned the necessity of remaining colonial subjects.

o The mass of the population resented government policies.

o Early attempts at revolution failed because the elites feared the potential power of thosunder them.

Causes of Political Change

o Four external events had a major effect on Latin American political thought.

o The American Revolution provided a model for colonial rebellion.

o The French Revolution offered revolutionary ideology, but it was rejected by elites as too radical politically and socially.

o The slave rebellion on the French island of St. Domingue led by François-Dominique

o Toussaint L’Overture in 1791 ended in 1804 with the independent republic of Haiti.

o The final and precipitating factor was the confused political situation in Spain and Portugal caused by French invasion and occupation

Spanish American Independence Struggles

o In Mexico, a Creole conspiracy caused Miguel de Hidalgo to appeal in 1810 to Indians and mestizos for support.

o After early victories, Hidalgo lost Creole support and was executed.

o The revolution continued and conservative Creoles under Augustín Iturbide won independence.

o The new state, a monarchy based on Creole dominance, collapsed in 1824.

o Mexico became a republic, and Central America, until then part of the empire, divided into independent nations.

o In northern South America, an independence movement led by a Creole officer, Simon Bolívar, began in Caracas in 1810.

o Between 1817 and 1822, he won victories in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador.

o The three countries were united as Gran Colombia until political differences in 1830 caused separation.

o In southern South America, rebellion began in Rio de la Plata under the leadership of José de San Martín. Buenos Aires opted for autonomy in 1810.

o In 1816, the independence of the United Republic of Rio de la Plata was proclaimed.

o The remaining Spanish territories fell to San Martín's forces.

o By 1825 all of Spanish America had won political independence.

Brazilian Independence

o By the end of the eighteenth century, Brazil was Portugal’s most important colonial possession.

o The French invasion of Portugal in 1807 led the royal family and many of the nobility toflee to Brazil.

o Rio de Janeiro became the real capital of the Portuguese empire.

o Brazil's ports were opened to world commerce because of pressure from Britain.

o King João VI remained in Brazil until 1820.

o When João VI returned to Portugal to deal with a liberal revolution, he left his son Pedro as regent.

o Pedro declared Brazil’s independence in 1822 and became the constitutional emperor, Pedro I.

o Independent Brazil maintained the existing social order based on slavery.

BRAZILIAN INDEPENDENCE

General Trends

-End of 18^th century: increase in population and economic importance

-Increased European demand for commodities (sugar, cotton, cacao)

-Increased importation of slaves to colony

Standpoints in Independence

-Failed movements for independence (Minas Gerais 1788, Bahia 1798)

-Political stability > independence, open trade, fewer taxes

Effects of French Intervention

Portugal (Brazilian Mother Country):

-1807 French Napoleonic invasion

-Royal Portuguese family + court escaped to Brazil w/ British protection

Brazil (Portuguese Colony)

-Rio de Janeiro, Brazil=Capital of Portuguese Empire

-Monarchy set up in Brazil

-Ports opened to world trade

-Transfer of courtà reinforced colonial relationship

Brazilian Empire (1807-1820)

-1807-1820 reign of Portuguese king (Dom Joao VI) IN BRAZIL

-Rio de Janeiro: Large metropolis

-Libraries, gardens, etc.

-Introduction of printing press

-Creation of schools

-Commerce expanded as more ports opened

Brazilian Empire (1820~)

-Defeat of Napoleon + Portuguese liberal revolution= recall of Dom Joao VI back to Portugal

-Establishment of Pedro (son of Dom Joao VI) as Brazilian regent

-Brazilian representation in Portuguese parliament

-Sept. 1822 Declaration of Brazilian independence by Pedro

-Regent Pedroà Dom Pedro I (constitutional emperor of Brazil)

-Fight against Portuguese troops=1 year

Brazilian independence vs. Spanish American independences

-Shorter wars against Mother Country

-Slave-based social organization kept status quo

-Minimal change in political structure

-Brazil =monarchy, not a republic

NEW NATIONS CONFRONT OLD AND NEW PROBLEMS

Universal problems of new nations

-Social inequalities

-Political representation

-Role of Church

-Regionalism

Early roles

-Egalitarian ideals (classless, free, equal, etc.)

-Constitutions made to balance order and popular representation

-Stances on slavery

ü -Bolivar got help from Haiti and in return, abolished slavery in liberated areas

ü -1854 Abolishment of all slavery except Cuba, Puerto Rico, Brazil (all economically dependent on slavery)

-Stances on race

ü -Need for revenueàSlower end to Amerindian and mixed origin taxes/tribute

ü -Amerindians=outcasts; rare participation in politics

-Stances on gender

ü -Voting rights for men ONLY

§ -Property, literary restrictions

ü -Disenfranchised women (few political outlets)

-Stances on class

ü -Creole elite distrust in popular classes b/c of vague preferences for new regimes

ü -Amerindian and mixed origin distrust of Creole elite b/c of their aristocratic, bourgeoisie roots

POLITICAL FRAGMENTATION

Regional blocks of 18 Latin American nations

o Failure to unify nations (e.g. Gran Colombia) b/c of:

ü Regional rivalries

ü Economic competition

ü Political divisions

ü Geographic barriers

ü Great distances

o 1st block: Mexico

-Short-lived monarchy

-1823 Declaration of republic

-1823-1860 unstable gov’t b/c of

ü Military coups

ü Financial failures

ü Foreign intervention

ü Political turmoil

o 2nd block: Central America

ü -Broke away from Mexican monarchy

ü -Initially united under separate union

ü -1838 Dissolution of union b/c of regional antagonisms (esp. against Guatemala)

o 3rd block: Spanish “loyal” colonies

-Caribbean, Cuba, Puerto Rico

-Suppression of independent movements

o 4th block: Haiti/D. Repub.

ü1804 Haitian independence ü1844 D. Repub. independence

o 5th block: South America

o New Granada viceroyalty

- Gran Colombia (Ecuador, Colombia, Panamá, Venezuela)

-1830 dissolution of Gran Colombia (death of Bolivar)

o Rio de la Plata Viceroyalty

- Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay

-1828 Uruguay Independence

-1813 Paraguay Independence

o Andean Nations

-Peru, Bolivia

-1829-1839 Possibility of union under Andres Santa Cruz (Failed)

o Chile (1817 independence)

- Pacific trade

-Stable political development

CAUDILLOS, POLITICS AND THE CHURCH

Importance of armies

-Intense regionalismà dictatorial power held by powerful regional army

-Defenders of empire

-Preservers of order

All about caudillos

-Armies loyal to regional commanders based on personal qualitiesàrise of caudillos

-Caudillos: independent leaders who used force to dominate local and national governments

-Some disregarded political structure/laws

- Most defended elites, landowners

-Some defended Amerindians, peasants, poor (populists)

-Rafael Carrera

-Conservative caudillo

-r.1839-1865 in Guatemala

-Supported Amerindians

Political views

-Most politicians=republican

-Major political parties: Liberal vs. Conservative

-Members from landowners or bourgeoisie

Republic: political system with elected representatives
Centralists	Federalists
-Centralized national government w/ a lot of power -Supported by conservatives	-Tax and commercial directed by regional governments -Supported by liberals
Conservatives	Liberals
-Supported corporate social structure or groupings (Amerindians, artisan guilds, Church institution ) -No open competition/individualism -Catholicism -Maintain old colonial society -Lucas Alamán -Enlightened Mexican politician in economic reform	-Against corporate social structure or groupings (Amerindians, artisan guilds, Church institution ) -Individualism -Secularism -U.S. & France=models of new colonial society

Role of Church

· Divided conservatives from liberals

ü e.g. Mexico

-Church is BIG in education, economy, politics -Liberals tried to limit Church in social life

-Pro-clerics + papacy + church vs. liberals

Forceful Political Leaders

Juan Manuel de Rosas (Argentina)

Antonio López de Santa Anna (Mexico)

First 50 years of Latin American Independence

o Colonial warfare + bad economies + political instability= need for political order

o Rapid presidential terms

o Short-lived, overturned, and changing constitutions

ü -Exceptions

-1833 Constitution of Chile: broad presidential powersà political compromise

-1824-1889 Constitution of Brazil and monarchial ruleà political compromise (turmoil: 1832-1850)

o Unresolved government and society problems

ü Possible reasons

-Personalism

-Lack of civic responsibility

-Defects in “Latin” character

ü Typical of newly independent colonies

LATIN AMERICAN ECONOMIES AND WORLD MARKETS, 1820-1870

General patterns in 19^th century

- Wars of independenceà mid-19^th c. economic stagnation

-Economic dependence on exports

à neocolonial ties +new markets

àrevenues

àallowed social & political reforms

àstable liberal regimes (Mexico, Argentine, Brazil, etc.)

-Economic goals= Diplomatic recognition, security, revenue

Foreign Intervention

o Spain: wants to recolonize Latin America

o U.S.= “big brother” over Latin America

ü 1823 Monroe Doctrine: no European colonization of Latin America w/o U.S. permission

o Britain= “big brother” over Latin America

ü Predominant over other countries before 1860

ü Latin American benefits from British:

-Opposed Spanish recolonization of Latin America -Source of loans -Protection

-Recognition -Source of revenue

ü British benefits from Latin America

a) Freedom of trade b)Source of revenue (€5 million/yr)

Mid-Century Latin American Stagnation

o 1820-1850 economic stagnation

ü Reasons

-Wars of independence -Poor roads

-Destruction of industries -Money tied up in lands

ü Exception

-Cuban colony of Spain (booming sugar economy)

-1850~:Expansion of European economyàincreased demand for Latin American goodsàeconomic growth

Latin American products

-Brazil: coffee

-Argentina: hides, beef

-Chile: minerals, grains

-Peru: guano (bird poop)

-1850-1880: exportation earned €10 millionàEnd of Amerindian tribute + abolishment of slavery

Effects of new technology

-Abolishment of slavery (in most areas)

-1840s steamship lineàimproved communication + international commerce

-1860s railroadàlinked producing regions to ports

-Increased dependence on exports àincreased vulnerability to international economic vagaries (sudden change)

Clash of the political parties

-After Wars for Independence

-1820s-1830s liberal reforms

-1840s conservatives slow/stop reforms

-Landowners + peasantry + Amerindians vs. middle-class, urban liberals

Economic resurgence and liberal policies

Effects of new liberal surge

-Auguste Comte: French Philosopher; founder of positivism

-2^nd Industrial Revolution + ImperialismàPositivism

-Positivism: observation+ scientific approach to problems in society

-Justification of quest for political stability and economic growth

-Science applied to industryà increased demands for Latin American commodities

-Copper -Rubber -Wheat

-Sugar -Coffee

-Booming economyàdoubled population (>43 million 1820-1880)

à expansion of export places (Colombia, Argentina, Brazil, etc.)

à belief in advantages of liberal programs

à costly

üIncreased landholdings by landowners üExpropriation of peasant lands (Chile, Peru, Bolivia)

üDisplacement of farmers (Brazil, Costa Rica) üChurch lands seized (Mexico)

üImmigration üNew tenancies, peonage (debt-repayment system), servitudes

Post 1860 political leaders

-Inspired by England, France, U.S.

-Believers in progress, education, free competition, secularism

-Distrustful of own people; barbarianism vs. civilization of progress

Mexico: Instability and Foreign Intervention

o 1824 Mexican constitution (based on France, U.S., Spain)

-Granted basic civil rights

-Unaddressed problems: maldistribution of land, Amerindian status, education, poverty

o 7 million people in Mexico

o 1832-1835 liberal control over Mexico

-Instituted sweeping reforms

-Attacked churchàviolent reactionàascension of General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

o Santa Anna: Mercurial, caudillo, personalist, autocratic

Mexican instability

o Weakened country attracted foreign intervention

o Occupation of Anglo-American settlers in Texas

üSought more autonomy than Mexican federalists

üEthnic, religious differences with Mexicans üSanta Anna, brief Texan hostage

ü1836 Santa Anna’s suppression of TexansàfightingàDeclaration of Texan independence

v Manifest destiny

üBelief that U.S. was destined to rule continent from coast to coast

ü1845 Annexation of Texasàborder disputeàwar

üU.S. seize Californiaàpenetrates/occupies Mexico

v Mexican American War

- 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

üb/w Mexico and U.S. üU.S. take ½ of Mexico territory; <5% of Mexican population

üTreaty + war=> distrust of northerners, Mexican loss of economic potential

= increased nationalism

-Benito Juarez (1806-1872)

-Educated Amerindian governor

-Against Santa Anna -Liberal -Secularist

-Autocratic after rule of Maximilian -Concerned for poor -Symbol of Mexico

-1845-1846 La Reforma

ü Liberal revolt üRestriction of Indian lands

ü 1857 new constitution üMilitary, clerical powers decreased

ü Sale of Land plan

-Directed towards Amerindians

-Goal: create small, independent farmers

-Failed plan

→Wealthy landowners/spectators bought lands

→1910 ½ of Mexicans = Landless peasants and Amerindians

o Conservative comeback

üChurch excommunication of constitution supporters üCivil war

üBenito Juarez comeback: extended radical measures üConservatives sought European help

-Napoleon III (France) intervention

-Why? -possible economic benefit

-dreams of empire

-desire to please French Catholics

-How? -Justification of French intervention through shared “Latin” culture

-1862 Landing of French forces, occupation of Mexican capital

o Maximilian Von Hapsburg

-Austrian Archduke -Took Mexican throne

-Tried to get support of liberals -Kept many laws of Reforma

-Withdrawal of French troopsàRegime crumbled -1867 Maximilian execution

o Porfirio Diaz

-Juarez’s successor -Mexican president

-Era of 1880: Mexican stability -Rapid economic growth through foreign capital

-Expansion -Political repression -Revolution

Argentina: The Port and the Nation

o Rio de la Plata: Southern South America

o Buenos Aires: popular trading port

-1820s, controlled by liberals

-Institution of reforms in education, finance, agriculture, immigration

-Program of public land sales: stimulated growth of ranches

o 1816 Declaration of Independence of United Provinces of Rio de la Plata

-Union split apart

-Regions dominated by caudillos and gauchos (American cowboys)

o Centralists=Unitarians

o Liberalists promoted centralismà provoked federalists

o 1831 federalist control over Argentina under Juan Manuel de Rosas

Juan Manuel de Rosas

-Federalist, populist, authoritarian, personalist -Increased export of hides + salted meats

-Despotic leader -Resisted British and French economic pressure

-Slogan: “Death to Unitarians” -1852 Overthrown by exiled liberals + jealous caudillos

-Favored Buenos Aires’ merchants & ranchers

-Against Amerindians

-Wanted to use Amerindian land for cattle ranchers

Brief Political Confusion

-1853 new constitution

-Influenced by Juan Bautista Alberdi (journalist; believer in upgrading immigration )

-Compromised federalism and centralism

-Power of presidency over regional governors

-1862 Formation of Argentine Republic

-Programs similar to La Reforma, Mexico

-Age of liberals

ARGENTINE PRESIDENTS (1862-1890)

o Domingo F. Sarmiento (1811-1888)

-Political reforms -Economic progress -Wrote Facundo : critique of caudillo politics

-Admirer of England and U.S. -Believer in education

-Against Juan Manuel de Rosas -Exiled during Rosas’ reign

ü Barbarian gauchos vs. civilized liberals

· Inherited benefits

ü Political stability

ü Expansion of Argentine economy (beef, hides, wool)

ü Increased foreign trade (1890=5 times as great as in 1860)àIncreased revenue

ü Increased population (3x)

ü Improved labor (agriculture expansion, high wages, opportunities for mobility)

ü Increased immigration

ü Buenos Aires: metropolis

ü 1865-1870 Argentina + Brazil + Uruguay war against ParaguayàIncreased nationalism

ü 1880 Defeat of Amerindians south of Buenos AiresàMore ranching/farming land

ü Advanced technology: railroad, telegraph, repeating rifleàEnded Amerindian resistance

-1890 Argentina=successful liberal program in Latin America

The Brazilian Empire

o independence from Portugal in 1822

o Dom Pedro I

- son & successor of Joao VI

- constitutional emperor

- 1831 forced to abdicate to son Pedro II

- regents ruled for Pedro II (republican gov.'t)

o liberalism vs conservatism

o coffee

- new cash crop

- fazendas (coffee estates)

- more than 40% of exports

o ↑ of slavery

- Great Britain pressure Brazil to end African slave trade

- more than 1.4 million African slaves imported

- 1888 abloshed slavery

o immigrants

- new labor force

- from Italy & Portugal

- 1850 ~ 1875: more than 300,000 immigrants

- helped slave abolitionist movement

o ↓ of support for monarchy

- triple alliance war vs Paraguay (1865 ~ 1870) was unpopular

- military took active roles in politics

- no support from clergy

- positivism: modern philosophy

: apply scientific ideas to government and society

- 1871 Republican party formed

- 1889 monarchy overthrown

o Antonio Conselheiro

- religious mystic

- followers usu. peasants

- community called Canudos

- resulted from change to republic, economic hardship, peasant unrest

- gov.'t sent military against Canudos

FROM EMPIRE TO NATION: OTTOMAN RETREAT & BIRTH OF TURKEY

o By mid-18th century, Ottoman looks like it’s falling apart

- Austrian Hapsburgs/Russians chipping away at empire

- African Muslim kingdoms broke away

- Economic problems – rising inflation, European imports

- Social problems – crime, rebellion

- Military can’t keep back Europeans

o By 19th century - New leaders/new Western reforms

o By 20th century

- New leaders take over power from sultanate

- Turkish area becomes a nation

- Middle East now exposed to Europe

o Problems due to series of weak rulers

a. Power struggles between ministers, religious experts, Janissaries

b. Local leaders + landowners (ayan) cheat sultan of money due to him

c. Role of artisans/merchants declines with European impact

o Merchants survived through European contacts

o Can’t defend outer areas

a. Limited money for military, inferior technology

b. Russians push for warm-water port in Black Sea

c. Throughout 1800s European holdings revolt (Greece, Serbia, Balkans)

Reform and Survival

o “sick man of Europe” still survives – Europeans afraid to break up – power struggle

o British actually help Ottoman Empire to counter Russian advance b/c they were concerned Russians might hurt British naval dominance

o Attempts at reform squashed by competing groups

o Sultan Selim III (r.1789 – 1807) pushes for improved bureaucracy, navy, army → Janissary corps, powerful bureaucrats feel threatened – he dies

o Mahmud II (2 decades after Selim III)–

a. 1826 gets rid of Janissaries - Great soup kettle debacle of 1826 (angry Janissaries overturned soup kettles in mess area → poured into streets like a mob→ confronted by sultan’s well-trained army→ Janissaries & allies + families slaughtered)

b. Limits powers of ayan (landlords who exercised political functions and were accorded official status)

c. Ulama – religious leaders = push for conservative theocracy, but Mahmud chooses Western reform: creates ambassadors to Europe & westernizes military

d. Tansimat reforms:

- Westernized university education

- State run postal, telegraph, railroad

- Legal reforms

Ø Effect of reforms

- Killed artisans – no import taxes – people buy European

- For women there was no effect b/c the reforms ignored cries for end to

- Seclusion, veiling, polygamy

- lack of education

Repression and Revolt

o once westernized, then western administrators want to end sultanate → New elites compete with older conservatives (ulama and ayan)

o Abdul Hamid (Ottoman sultan) tries to end reforms by becoming a despot – the old liberal vs. conservative backlash

- restricts civil liberties – freedom of the press

- “troublemakers” imprisoned or killed

- still pushed for Westernization - (especially) Western military techniques/technology & judicial reforms, education, railroad, telegraph

o Ottoman Society for Union and Progress (founded in Paris in 1889 by exiled supporters of Abdul)“Young Turks” – push for reform

- Want 1876 Constitution and more reforms

- b. Eventually assassinate Abdul Hamid in 1908

→Sultan becomes figurehead

→Elite officers come to power

ü Begin reign by fighting back battles in Balkans

ü Survive by playing European rivalries against each other

ü World War I in 1914 makes this revolution irrelevant

ü Arab world suffers

- They thought 1908 revolution would give them more freedom – wrong - Turks want to subjugate Arabs even more

WESTERN INTRUSIONS AND THE CRISIS IN THE ARAB ISLAMIC HEARTLANDS

o Different ways of reversing decline of Islamic world

a. Return to Islamic past - some rose up to lead jihads, holy wars, against Europeans

b. Large-scale adaptation of Western ways

c. Combine two approaches (ex. Egypt’s Muhammad Ali will try to combine both b & c)

o Arab world growingly frustrated with Turkish/Ottoman rule

a. However, it couldn’t stop European threat

b. Muslims at one point had destroyed/evenly matched Christians

c. Annoyed that they’d been displaced as the leading civilization

Muhammad Ali and the Failure of Westernization in Egypt

o 1798 Napoleon tries to invade Egypt

a. Squares off against Mamluk (slave) regime

b. Napoleon able to defeat tens of thousands of Mamluks w/ firepower

1. Medieval armor and spears vs. Napoleon’s artillery

c. Symbolic of how far behind Muslim world was

d. Eventually British sink Napoleon’s navy – Napoleon returns w/out conquering

o Albanian Muhammad Ali rises and realizes strength of West

a. Tries to adapt European style military force

- Hired French officers

- Conscription for peasants

- imported French weapons

- Adopted Western tactics/methods of supply

b. Built best fighting force in Middle East & navy

c. But in the end it didn’t totally transform economy to pay for military

- Told peasants to increase production…hey thanks…

- Some new harbors, canals, irrigation

- Can’t build industry because European goods so much cheaper

d. After death, Egyptians intermarried with Turks

- Khedives – Ali’s descendants – rule until 1952

Bankruptcy, European Intervention, and Strategies of Resistance

o Economic problems

a. Making cotton one staple crop leads to market fluctuation – rely on imports (ex. Southern US )

b. Wealth wasted on expensive pastimes

- rich people wasting money on their entertainment was unprecedented

c. Egypt goes into debt to European financiers

- Europe wants access to cheap cotton

- Europe wants access to Suez Canal – 1869

- From then on, France/Britain continually involve selves b/c they want debt repaid – start influencing more

→ British troops end up supporting puppet governments – khedives

ü Justified after British fought back revolt of Ahmad Orabi (young Egyptian officer) – 1880s

ü Begins direct British rule of Islamic heartland

o Strategies of resistance

a. Muslim thinkers start meeting to discuss options

- Jihad – drive infidels from Muslim lands

- Return to religious/social life under Muhammad (perceived) - Revivalists

- Borrow scientific learning & technology from West - excuse = they only made them from Muslim knowledge

o Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan

- Egyptian rule over Sudan resented

- Egypt conquers sedentary people, but trouble with nomads

ü Taxes high

ü Leaders corrupt

ü Favoritism of some Sudanese tribes over others

ü Egyptians tried to get rid of lucrative slave trade – how dare they?

- Muhammad Achmad’s Involvment

ü Get spiritual visions – he could be the promised one – Mahdi

Escapes from kidnapping, has visions – this guy must be a prophet

ü Attacks Egyptians, then plans for Ottoman Empire and Europe - Used guerilla warfare & blessings + magical charm given confidence

ü Reformed conquered land by controlling drink and smoking & severely punished theft, prostitution, adultery

ü Finally defeated by British General Kitchener – machine guns, artillery were too strong => Europeans were threatened by biggest threat to their dominance of continent → 1898 – British win – expand control to interior Africa

THE LAST DYNASTY: THE RISE AND FALL OF THE QING EMPIRE IN CHINA

Rot from Within: Bureaucratic Breakdown and Social Disintegration

o Exam system riddled with cheating/favoritism

- Bribery involving examiners, scholars paid to take exam for the rich

- Sons of officials put in places of power – nepotism vs. meritocracy

- Merchants/landowners put in power

- Lack the Confucian values

→ Bureaucracy became means of improving lives of wealthy/not poor

- $ given to wealthy families, not for infrastructure ($ taken from military – left unprotected & unrepaired dikes destroy land > famine and disease)→ widespread migration – banditry, vagabonds

Ming era brought in American crops – population explosion

Refusal to bring in technological innovations to satisfy this population

Corruption and conservative Manchus prevented needed changes & refused influence of “barbarians” (Westerners)

Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After

o Europeans = larger threat than nomads – technology makes up for #s

o Europeans had to find a way to balance trade b/c they were paying for silks, fine porcelains, tea w/ silver bullion

o Chinese became upset about opium trade →sapping economy of bullion – can’t pay for public works & people got addicted – 1% addicted to the drug, opium dens spread, officials became useless b/c they started to neglect duties in favor of addiction

o Lin Zexu enforces the laws

ü Blockades Canton from European traders – warehouses searched

ü Opium confiscated and destroyed

o Europeans annoyed – property rights being infringed → easily won Opium War (1839-1841) → China forced to open 5 other ports – not just Canton/Macau anymore

o China treated as subservient to Europe after 1850

ü No protective tariffs to protect Chinese manufacturing

ü Had to accept European ambassadors in court – as equals

ü Opium trade continues w/o control

A Civilization at Risk: Rebellion and Failed Reforms

o Rebellions go on across the land

o Christian& prophet Hong Xiuquan leads the Taiping Rebellion:

ü promised social reform, land redistribution, liberation for women

ü Attacked Confucian values – wanted to create simpler script

ü Make literacy more possible for everyone

ü Eventually local landowners create military that stops rebellion

*Hong Xiuquan losing his mind

o Manchu rulers refuse to institute necessary reforms

o End of dynasty - Cixi – powerful empress

o Imprisons nephew in Forbidden City

o Spends money on fancy marble boat, not on military

o Boxer Rebellion – 1989-1901 – European, American, Japanese put down

o Boxers trying to end foreign economic/political control

o Insult to injury – gov’t then has to pay Europeans, Americans, and Japanese for their losses

The Fall of the Qing: The End of a Civilization

o Secret societies start emerging (ex. White Lotus, Triads and Society of Elders and Brothers)

-failed amazingly – no $ and poorly organized, but set precedent & became training ground for future rebellions

o Some Western-educated leaders support a European-syle political reform

o Rising middle class →mad at Manchus and foreigners → cut off queues – no not a bank line – that insulting little ponytail thing

Finally in 1911 – students + mutinies from imperial troops + secret societies uprising

Emperor Puyi forced to abdicate

1905 – Civil service exam given for last time, significance:

a. Couldn’t solve China’s problems with Confucian ideals from 2500 years ago

b. End of the Confucian system – violently destroyed→ massive civil bureaucracy, rule by educated/cultivated scholar-gentry, artistic accomplishments of old now criticized

EVENTS

1600 s

1619 Dutch established trading post at Batavia in Java

1620s Sultan of Mataram’s attacks on Batavia fails

1644 Manchu nomads conquer China; Qing dynasty rules

1664- 1722 Reign of Kangxi emperor in China

1652 First Dutch settlement in South Africa at Cape Town

1661 British past –trading center founded at Bombay

1690 Calcutta established at center of British activities in Bengal

1700 s

1707 Death of Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb; beginning of imperial breakdown

1727 First printing press set up in Ottoman Empire

1736-1799 Reign of Qianlong emperor in China

1739 Nadir Shah’s invasion of India from Persia

1740 – 1748 War of Austrian Succession; global British – French struggle for colonial dominance

1750s Civil war and division of Mataram; Dutch become the paramount power of Java

1756 – 1763 Seven Years’ War; British – French global warfare

1757 Battle of Plassey; British dominant power in Bengal

1768-1774 Disastrous Ottoman war with Russia

1769- 1770 Great Famine in Bengal

1775 – 1782 War for independence by American colonist; another British – French struggle for global preeminence

1772 Safavid dynasty falls in Persia

1786 – 1790 Cornwallis’ political reforms in India

1789-1807 Reign of Ottoman Sultan Selim III

1790 – 1815 Wars of the Revolution ad Napoleonic era

1792 Slave rebellion in St. Domingue (Haiti)

1798 Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt

1798 British embassy to Qianlong emperor in China; French invasion of Egypt’s Mamaluk rulers

1800 s

1804 Haiti declares independence

1805-1849 Reign of Muhammad Ali in Egypt

1807 -1839 Reign of Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II

1808 – 1825 Spanish – American wars of independence

1808 Portuguese court flees Napoleon, arrives in Brazil; French armies

1810 In Mexico, Father Hidalgo initiates rebellion against Spain

1815 British annex Cape Town and surrounding area

1821 Mexico declares independence; empire under Iturbide lasts to 1823

1822 Brazil declares independence; empire established under Dom Pedro I

1823 Monroe Doctrine indicates U.S. opposition to European ambitions in the Americas

1826 Ottoman Janissary corps destroyed

1829 – 1852 Juan Manuel de Roses rules Rio de la Plata

1830 Bolivar dies; Gran Colombia dissolves into separate countries of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador

1830 Start of the Boers’ “Great Trek” in South Africa

1834 Postal system established in Ottoman Empire

1835 Decision to give support for English education in India; English adopted as the language of Indian law courts

1838 Ottoman treaty with British removing trade restrictions in the empire

1839-1841 Opium War in China

1839-1876 Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire

1839-1897 Life of Islamic thinker al-Afghani

1846 – 1848 Mexico – American war

1847 – 1855 Caste War in Yucatan

1849-1905 life of Muhammad Abduh

1850s Beginning of railroad construction in Cuba, Chile, and Brazil

1850s Boer republics established in the Orange Free State and Transvaal

1850 -1864 Taiping rebellion in China

1853 First railway line constructed in India

1854 Benito Juarez leads reforms in Mexico

1854-1856 Crimean war

1856-1860 Anglo-French war against China

1857 Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay universities founded

1857 – 1858 “Mutiny” or Great Rebellion in north India

1858 British parliament assumes control over India from the East India Company

1862 – 1867 French intervention in Mexico

1865 – 1870 War of the Triple Alliance (Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay against Paraguay)

1866 first railway begun in Ottoman Empire

1867 Diamonds discovered in Orange Free State

1868 – 1878 Ten- year war against Spain in Cuba

1869 Opening of the Suez Canal

1869 First school for girls in Mexico

1870 Ottoman legal code reformed

1876 – 1911 Porfirio Diaz rules Mexico

1876 Constitution promulgated for Ottoman Empire

1876-1908 Reign of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid

1877 Treaty of San Stefano; Ottomans driven from most of the Balkans

c. 1879 – 1890s Partition of West Africa

1879 Zulu victory over British as Isandhlwana; defeat at Rourke’s Drift

1882 British invasion and occupation of Egypt; failed revolt led by Orabi in Egypt

1883 Mahdist victory over British-led Egyptian expeditionary force at Shakyan

1885 Indian National Congress Party founded in India; gold discovered in the Transvaal

1886 – 1888 Cuba and Brazil finally abolish slavery

1889 fall of Brazilian Empire; republic established

1889 Young Turks established in Paris

1890s Partition of east Africa

1895 – 1898 Cuban Spanish – American War; United States acquires Puerto Rico and Philippines

1898 British – French crisis over Fashoda in the Sudan

1898 British – Egyptians army defeats the Mahdist army at Omdurman

1898 -1901 Boxer Rebellion in China; 100 Days of Reform in China

1899-1902 Anglo – Boer War in South Africa

1900s

1902 Anglo – Japanese Treaty

1903 Panamanian independence; Beginning of Panama Canal (opens at 1914)

1904 Anglo – Russian crisis at Dogger Bank

1904- 1905 the first Moroccan crisis

1905 Fatherland Party established in Egypt

1908 Young Turks seize power in Istanbul

1911 the second Moroccan crisis

1914 Outbreak of WWI

People to Know

o Toussaint L’Overture- extension of French Revolution (internal political conflict), slaves seized the moment in 1791 to stage a general rebellion under an able leadership

o Father Miguel de Hidalgo- priest, in Mexico; conspiracy among leaders leading Creoles moved one of the plotter; called help from American Indians and mestizos of his region in 1816; won early victories, lost support of Creoles b/c fear social rebellion more than the desire of independence

o Augustin de Interbide- a Creoles officer- sent to eliminate the insurgents; agreement made à join them, combined forces for independence, occupied Mexico City (September 1821); supporter of army à became emperor of Mexico

o Simon Bolivar- wealthy Creole officer- leader of the revolt against Spain; desire independence; considerable military skills, mobilized support (1817 -1822); reject all attempts to be king

o Jose de San Martin- in Buenos Ariesà emerged as military commander; entered Peru àwon major victories; willing to speak and act for independence

o Dom Joao VI- until 1820, Portuguese king; lived in Brazil and ruled his empire there

o Dom Pedro I- prince regent; refused to return to Europe; September 1822 – claimed Brazil independent; became Brazil constitutional emperor

o Andres Santa Cruz- Mestizos general (Peru and Bolivia); regional rivalries and fear of their neighbors undermined their efforts

o Rafael Carrera- conservatives ruled Guatemala (1839 – 1865); sincerely interest in American Indians

o Lucas Alaman- Mexican intellectual and politician; enlightened leaders = economics and commercial reforms; conservative = skeptical of secularism and individualism

o Juan Manuel de Rosas- in Argentina – general population might be mobilized by the force and personality of this leader

o Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna- in Mexico – general population might be mobilized by the force and personality of this leader

o Benito Juarez- humble American Indian who had received a legal education à became governor of his state; shared the liberal vision of a secular society

o Maximilian von Habsburg- an Austrian archduke (followed the liberals); took the throne of Mexico, keep many of the laws of the Reforma in place (well – intentioned but ineffective)

o Porfirio Diaz- one of Juarez’s general; became president then virtual dictator

o Juan Manual de Rosas- commanded the loyalty of the gaucho employees of the ranchers

o Juan Bautista Alberdi- influence a new constitution in 1853; an able, progressive journalist, a strong believer in the need to encourage immigration

o Domingo F. Sarmiento- able/ intelligent president; initiated wide series of politician reforms and economy measures; firm believer of education and the supporter of progress

o Antonio Conselheiro- religious mystic, gather followers (1890s – mostly peasants); secularization of society, provoked peasant unrest

o Antonia Goncalves Dias- (1823 -1864) poet, emphasized the exotic as well as the distinctive aspects of American society; used the American Indians as a symbol of Brazil and America

o Jose Hernandez- in 1872, wrote Martin Fierro, a romantic epic poem about the end of the way of the gaucho

o Alberto Blest- wrote critically about the social mores of their country during this era

o J. Machado Assis- Brazilian mulatto, wrote critically about the social mores of their country during this era

o Policapa (La Pola) Salvatierra- spied for the Revolutionary Forces during the Spanish Reconquista of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. She was captured by Spanish Royalists and ultimately executed for high treason. She is now considered a heroine of the independence of Colombia.

o Jose Enrique Rodo- Uruguayan, in his essay Ariel (1900), contrasted the spiritually of Hispanic culture with the materialism of American culture

	India	China “order over freedom”	Japan “adopt, adept, adapt”	Africa
European Power Imperializing	Great Britain	Great Britain: wanted to open China in order to get silver	Many Europeans (First British came and others followed)	Many Europeans
When	1756-1763 (7 Years War)	1839-1842 (Opium War)	1853	1884-1885
How took over	- Won India from French’s loss in 7 Years War - Put Indian kings against each other - 1840s Robert Clive conquered Calcutta à got $ and people realized India is wealthy	Opium War: (merchants wanted war) - China lost war à started when British started selling addictive opium-China stops opium trade and British wages war	- British ship goes to part of Tokyo and showed their firearms to scare them. - Other Europeans showed arms - NEVER IMPERIALIZE because of Meji Restoration	Berlin Conference: - Led by Bismarck - “Scramble for Africa” Europeans split Africa * Egypt connects Mediterranean and Red Sea by Canal (most wanted) * Desert & tropics (least wanted) Belgium-Congo (least power) - Make money from discovery of rubber: known for their mistreatments S. Africa: Portuguese & Dutch (fought a war for S. Africa [1899-1902] Bohr War *precursor to WWI) - Rich place; great climate
Revolts & results	1857 Sepoy Rebellion sepoy- Indian soldier - Caused by rumors of cow and pork fat used in weaponry “Indian Mutiny”	1- Second Opium War: 1856-1860 2- Tai-Ping Rebellion 3- Boxer Rebellion: group of anti foreigner rebel throughout the countryside against Western culture	Meji Restoration: Japan industrializes in 23 years on modernizationà become rich **Named after Meji emperor	Zulus Revolt: were killed with European arms-
Attempts by locals to unify (Leader of Independence Movement)	Indian National Congress 1880 - Movement of fighting for independent India: Mahatma Gandhi - Independence: 1947 Nehru- 1^st prime minister of India Girrah- president of Pakistan	First Republic of China (had weak government) à overthrown - Nationalist leader: Sun-Yatsen - Independence: 1911	1890- establish own constitution (influenced Korea, China) - Samurai gone & emperor has power - Becomes military dictatorship 1904: defeats Russia in Russo-Japanese War 1910: is imperializing power	Independence leader: Jomo Kenyatta Nelson Mandela Won Independence: 1950s

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