|
CLASS NOTES:
Militarism:
-Social
Darwinism – “survival of the Fittest”
“War was a
biological necessity of the first importance”
-Arms
Race: GBR & GER built up navies
|
-Central
Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia (left), Italy
-The
Allies/ Triple Entente/ “Entente Cordiale”: FRA, GBR, (RUS)
Nationalism:
-Jingoism = extreme patriotism
-FRA
bitter about losing Alsace & Lorraine to GER during Franco-Prussian was
-Pan
Slavism: Russia felt it had responsibility to defend all Slavs (i.e. Serbia)
against any threat
-Balkans=”powder
keg of EUR”
-Ottoman
Empire & Austria-Hungary worried about increasing nationalism
Imperialism:
-GBR
felt threatened by GER’s rapid industrialization
-GER
felt that it didn’t get enough respect
-GER
didn’t want FRA to impose protectorate status of Morocco – Kaiser Wilhelm II
Assassination of
Archduke Ferdinand & Wife (Sophie):
-Austrian
Archduke Ferdinand planned visit to Bosnia’s capital Sarajevo - 19-year-old
Gavrilo Princip shot them
- Black
Hand (secret society) was outraged → goal =
unite all south Slavs into a nation
June 28:
day Serbia was conquered by Ottomans in 1389 & Serbia freed themselves from
Turks on that day in 1912
-Bosnia=
home to many Slavs, remained under Austro-Hungarian control
CHAIN REACTION
– 6 weeks for WWI to unfold
® Austria-Hungary,
unsatisfied w/ Serbia's response to her ultimatum declared war on Serbia on 28
July 1914.
® Russia, bound by treaty to
Serbia, announced mobilization of its vast army in her defense, a slow process
that would take ≈6 weeks to complete.
® GER, allied to Austria-Hungary by
treaty, viewed the Russian mobilization as an act of war against
Austria-Hungary, and after scant warning declared war on Russia on Aug. 1.
® FRA, bound by treaty to Russia,
found itself at war against GER and, by extension, on Austria-Hungary following
a German declaration on Aug 3. GGER to
reach Paris set foot on neutral Belgium
® GBR, allied to France by a more
loosely worded treaty which placed a "moral obligation" upon her to
defend France, declared war against GER on Aug 4. Reason = obligated to defend neutral Belgium
by the terms of a 75-year old treaty. GER's invasion of Belgium on Aug 4, &
Belgian King's appeal to Britain for assistance, GBR committed to Belgium's defense later that
day. Like FRA, she was by extension also
at war w/ Austria-Hungary.
*With Britain's entry into the
war, her colonies and dominions
abroad variously offered military and financial assistance, and included
Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa.
® US President Woodrow Wilson
declared a U.S. policy of absolute neutrality, an official stance that would
last until 1917 when GER's policy of unrestricted submarine warfare - which
seriously threatened America's commercial shipping (which was in any event
almost entirely directed towards the Allies led by GBR and FRA) - forced the
U.S. to finally enter the war on 6 April 1917.
® JAP, honoring a military agreement
w/ Britain, declared war on GER on 23 August 1914. 2 days later A-H responded by declaring war
on JAP.
® ITA, although allied to both GER
and A-H, was able to avoid entering the fray by citing a clause enabling it to
evade its obligations to both. In short,
Italy was committed to defend GER and A-H only in the event of a 'defensive'
war; arguing that their actions were 'offensive' she declared instead a policy
of neutrality. The following year, in
May 1915, she finally joined the conflict by siding w/ the Allies against her
two former allies.
o
Schlieffen Plan: GER had to quickly defeat FRA
to avoid 2 front war then go on to fight RUS
o
GBR had least to gain from a war in EUR, but
joined to defend Belgium’s neutrality
o
RUS’s economy was based on serfdom, struggled to
industrialize
o
Ottoman Emp. since 1908 had a W-style
constitution, surrendered sovereignty to GER for help
o
GER was unified by Bismarck (Prime Minister) in
1971
o
Austria-Hungary was ruled by Hapsburg Dynasty
(old & dying), diverse ethnicities, provided explosion for war
o
Balkans wanted its own homeland
o
Weapons: machine guns, Howitzer cannons, U-boats,
airplanes (=death sentence), warships, artillery, chemical weapons
o
Key Battles: Marne, Somme, Verdun, St. Mihiel,
Hindenburg Line
-Battle of Somme = 1st
use of tanks by Brits – by 1917 ended
trench warfare
- Jul. 1 –Nov. 18 1916 –
Tactics become more sophisticated & supply lines = more sufficient
Trench Warfare: -Forces dug trenches => infested
w/ lice, disease, etc.
-“No Man’s Land” = land
between trenches
o
Spies: Mata Hari (for GER) & Edith Cavell
(for GBR)
o
Sinking of Lusitania passenger ship (suspected
of transporting ammunition) sun my German submarines ® lots of
people died®outcries®brought
US closer to war
o
US’s enters WWI: Liberty bonds to raise $,
racism against GER (called them “Huns”)
o
Women filled factory jobs ®views/roles
changed®many countries granted women’s suffrage (Denmark
= first)
o
Russian Revolution: RUS left war temporarily in
1917 due to internal strife ®tsar
overthrown®Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
o
Arabs unite w/ GBR against Ottoman Emp.
|
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
|
®
|
TRIPLE ENTENTE
|
|
o GER: übecame super power b/c industrialized well
üwants recognition as superpower
üWilliam II/Wilhelm II
ümakes FRA & GBR angry
1914-1918
o Austria-Hungary 1914-1918
-------------------------------------------------
o Ottoman Empire: “Sick Man of EUR”
üwant
to keep it alive – losing territory since 1800s
ümodernize
ü”Young
Turks” (Kemal Ataturk) want to get rid of sultan
üLost
Crimean War
1914-1918
|
o RUS: 1914-1917
ülost Russo-Japanese War (fought over Manchuria)
üpan-Slavism
üwants warm water ports
Since 1850s = enemy of FRA & GBR
üTsar Nicholas II=last tsar * Rasputin = “freak” w/ lots of
influence
o ITA: üNew nation that wants to dominate Mediterranean - needs to strengthen own country
üN= Industrial, but S= agricultural
üparliament
üsame
interests as new countries (GER & A-H)
1914-1918 *1915 SWITCHED SIDES
|
o FRA:ükeeps losing wars, wants to dominate
üculturally dominant b/c French = language of upper class
Europeans
üRepublic, became a Democracy since 1819
1914-1918
o GBR: ü1/3 of wealth comes from colonies
üfears growing German navy
üVictorian age – GBR= largest Empire in history
üIndia & Suez Canal = VERY IMPORTANT
üDemocracy – 30% could vote (not complete) – property
owners + NO women
1914-1915 (Prime minister = David Lloyd George)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
o JAP:
üNew “Asian” Superpower
ügain recognition & dominance by limiting EUR influence
in China
üNo alliance @ beg. b/c WWI= EUR conflict & it wasn’t
fully respected
ümilitary gov.’t
o USA: üpower = “dominant”
üRoosevelt Corollary (U.S. might intervene in the affairs
of an American republic threatened w/ seizure or intervention by a European
country)
üManifest destiny(policy of imperialistic expansion
defended as necessary/benevolent)
üOpen Door Policy
üWilson & Roosevelt
üIsolationist
üDemocratic
|
|
NEUTRAL
|
||
|
o SPA& POR:
üregain glory
üinternal civil war
üdecline since 1650s – modernize
|
o
END OF WAR= The
Armistice – Paris Peace Conference (w/ Big Three), Treaty of Versailles, 14 Pts.
o
COST: 1918, all belligerents spent as much as
$10,000,000/hr. – Total = $400,000,000 in
property
o
CASUALTIES: 9,000,000 – 65,000,000 directly
involved died in action/ of wounds
22,000,000 were wounded,
5,000,000 were “missing”, 9,000,000 civilians lost their lives from
starvation/epidemics/massacres
®Economic
Depression & Food Shortages
o
TREATY OF VERSAILLES
View
Points:
a)
USA: Wilson’s 14 Pts. = no blame, just future
peace & League of Nations to insure it, but Congress didn’t support it
b)
GBR: David Lloyd George: keep colonial emp.
despite clearly not being dominant power in world anymore – MANDATES (like a colony- the “mother
country” promises independence @ a “future” date for a colony – when it’s ready
to be independent)
c)
FRA: Georges Clemenceau: punish GER
d)
ITA: (least important of Big Four b/c they
switched sides)
New
Nations: Ireland, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, (other parts of
A-H went to Poland, Romania, Italy)
Ø Drew
borders that GER couldn’t cross over
Ø Forbid
GER from building fortifications too close to FRA
Ø Limited
size of GER’s army
Ø GER
ceded to FRA – territories lost: Alsace + Lorraine, Czechoslovak state, Poland,
Austria, parts of former Russian Emp., overseas possessions (China) &
COMPENSATE FRA for damages
Justifications for punishment:
grants independence to many areas, draws borders, removes GER ‘s presence overseas
o
Rise of Extremism: JAP (militaristic gov.’t), RUS,
GER (Nazis), ITA (Fascism)
MIDDLE EAST:
BRITISH
controlled Mesopotamia, Palestine, Egypt (Suez Canal) FRANCE controlled Syria & Lebanon
o
GBR saw that aiding Hussein & Arabs in Arab
revolt = dividing Turkish forces & protecting British flank in N. Africa
o
promised Arab independence
o
signed secret Sykes-Picot Agreement b/w GRA & GBR (later RUS) which divided
Ottoman Emp. into spheres of influence
a)
GBR got Mesopotamia + Palestine
b)
FRA got parts of S. Anatolia, Syria
c)
RUS: Armenia + Kurdistan
o
supported Zionism
o
GBR supported Greeks in Anatolia b/c it wanted
to support Christian pop. of W. Anatolia & make it possible for withdrawal
of some British occupational troops + get Greek forces to replace them®began
Graeco-Turkish War (4 yrs. of bloody fighting)
o
Treat of Sevres: didn’t last b/c Sherif Hussein
was overthrown in 1924 & nationalism started to emerge in Anatolia
o
FRA & GBR wanted oil-rich territories
o
Treaty of Lausanne:
GBR kept Cyprus, Palestine,
Transjordan, Iraq FRA
got Syria (angered Arabs who freed Damascus)
o
FRA & GBR presence caused nationalism to
spread, Armenians & Kurds weren’t granted self-detrmination
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
o
Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels wrote A Communist Manifesto in 1848
I.
Dialectal Materialism -success of capitalism
II.
Surplus Value Theory – proletariat can no longer
use products of manufacture b/c bourgeois capitalists lower wages, revolution =
inevitable & socialist gov.’t will be formed
III.
Equality of Classes will result from the
abolishment of private property
-
Give all that you can, and receive only what you
“need”
-
lacks human motivation – merit
o
Different Groups in Russia before Russian
Revolution:
I.
Constitutional Democrats (Cadets): reflected the
middle class by not worrying about the proletariat
II.
Social Revolutionaries (Narodhiks): believed
that the formation of capitalism was not necessary for socialism to take hold
(from agrarian sys. directly to socialism)
III.
Marxists:
a)
Bolsheviks: small group of elite
revolutionaries. NO toleration of varying opinion/cooperation w/ outside
influences
b)
Mensheviks: more democratic style
o
“Bloody Sunday” of 1905: Father Gapon (Russian
Orthodox priest) led peaceful march to Czar’s winter Palace – most gunned down
by troops
o
Results of the Revolution of 1905:
¥ Soviets
(worker’s councils) formed & demanded reform
¥ peasant
uprisings (burning of manor houses + overrunning of lands)
¥ October
Manifesto: Czar Nicholas II’s response to massive strike by Petrograd (St.
Petersburg) soviet – promised development of constitution, Duma (council
assemblies – gov.’t institution), freedom of speech, etc.
o
Causes of March Revolution of 1917: WWI
(devastated by loss of manpower + ammunition), Rasputin (“mad monk” healed
czarevitch of hemophilia => influence in politics), Czarina is German
(Anti-GER sentiment is high), food shortages ®riots by
soviets
o
Results of March Revolution of 1917: provisional
gov.’t (Duma) established/consolidated ®Tsar
abdicated, abolition of class+religious+nationality restrictions,
Russia=Republic
o
Minister of Justice = Kerensky & President =
Prince Lvov
o
Causes of Nov. Revolution of 1917 (Bolshevik
Revolution): unfulfilled promise of redistribution of land, loss of discipline
in army due to Order, cont. to fight WWI, opposed by Petrograd soviet who
wanted speedy end to war
o
Reason for Kerensky’s gov.’t’s failure: wanted
to stay in war but others disagreed, weak lacked support
o
Lenin’s Beliefs & “Peace, Land, Bread”:
immediate peace w/ Central Powers, redistribution of land to peasants, transfer
of industrial plans from capitalists to committees of workers, recognition of
soviets as supreme power
o
How Bolsheviks took over Russia: takes over
communications (telephone, railways, etc.) of Petrograd, stormed Winter Palace
(Kerensky’s gov.’t) & seized Petrograd, formed Council of Peoples
Commissars instead of provisional gov.’t – Lenin & Trotsky
o
Brest-Litovsk Treaty: pulls RUS out of WWI &
Poland & Ukraine given to GER to stop attacks on RUS
o
Groups that fought Russia’s Civil War
(1918-1922): Tsarist Reactionaries, liberals, bourgeois, zemstovs, Democrats,
anti-Leninists, Socialists, Mensheviks, Social revolutionaries VS. Bolsheviks & Communists (were
unified)
o
Bolshevik Supporters: soviets, peasants,
soldiers were promised that they could get out of war
o
COMMUNISM:
class-less society where everyone is economically equal
o
Lenin + Bolsheviks arrived in Petrograd &
sided w/ soviet
o
Red Terror (founded in 1918):
carried out by cheka (secret police)
= SUCCESS
-broke out during civil war =
response to civil & foreign war
-aim=exterminate all opposers
of new regime - thousands shot
-
consolidate, strengthen & enrich, make it military & industrially,
self-sufficient, lay the groundwork for a true workers’ society, overcome the
Russian reputation for backwardness
-Leon
Trotsky as war commissar and founder
o
Spring of 1918 – Georgia, Armenia, and
Azerbaijan in the Caucasus proclaimed their independence
o
Omsk – a disaffected group, proclaimed
independence of Siberia.
o
Red Army fought in Ukraine first against
Germans, then the French who occupied Odessa as soon as the war ended in
Europe.
- It also re-conquered Georgia,
Armenia, and Azerbaijan, the ones that proclaimed their independence
o
French aided the Poles and Ukrainians while
Britain and U.S. wanted nothing to do w/ wars after the armistice of World War
I was signed. National peace was finally reached.
o
Stalin’s Rise to Power: Lenin
dies in mid 1920s®Stalin uses secret police
and alliances within the Communist Party to eliminate his enemies/rivals®By 1929,
consolidated his power & has become a dictator of the USSR
o
First Five – Year Plan:
declared successful in 1932, was administered by an agency called Gosplan -
determined the # of people to go into each profession, and the number of
quantities of different materials that should be produced. – (actually not success)
o
Second Five – Year Plan:
launched & lasted until 1937
o
Collectivization
of Agriculture: plan set up collective farms, Individual
peasants were to pool their privately owned fields and livestock in these
collectives
-
Kulaks
(prosperous peasants) who possessed fields & stock in considerable amount
resisted surrendering them to the new collectives. à Kulaks
were liquidated as a class.
-
Big farmers slaughtered their animals (horses,
cattle, pigs, and poultry) rather than give them up = worst unforeseen famine
of the first Five – Year Plan in 1932
o
Industrial Growth
ü the USSR
(1928-1938) production of steel and iron had expanded four times and that of
coal three and a half times.
ü Copper
mines were open in the Urals and around Lake Balkhash, lead mines in eastern
Asia and in the Altai Mountains
ü Grain
producing regions were developed in Siberia
ü The
Kuznetsk Basin was found to possess coal deposits
ü For the
first time, inner Asia was turning industrial
ü The USSR
industry lagged behind the West
o
Social Costs and Social Effects of the Plans
ü Kulaks
lost their lives + others were sent off to correctional labor camps.
ü Those
being forced to enter a program of self-denial (peasants were all
collectivized) were going without the better food and housing, all for the
industry of the country
ü People
were told to look forward to better clothing, better housing, more leisure,
etc… à Morale was preached by propaganda
ü Hard
work and low wages
ü No one
could leave the country without special permission
ü No free
labor unions, no free press, no freedom of association, low religious tolerance
o
Socialism caused: No cycle of boom + depression,
less misuse of women and children, no complete equality of income (government
officials, managers, engineers, & favored artists and intellectuals
received the highest rewards), competition persisted
o
Purge Trials of the 1930’s:
Stalin’s paranoia executed those who were original Bolsheviks & higher
military officials
o
Communist International/Comintern: Formed
when radicals of the Second International joined w/ the Russian Communist
Party, Its purpose, according to Lenin: “To begin to carry into effect the
dictatorship of the proletariat.” It was also set up to discredit and isolate
the moderate socialists, whom the Bolsheviks despised the most.
o
IMPACTS: 1.
Europe now feared an existing Marxist society, covering 1/6th of the Earth
2.
Socialists, previously seen as dangerous, now considered respectable
3.
People “planned” against the uncertainty of capitalism
4. The
3rd World (poor) Countries, under European colonization, showed admiration
toward Russia because it modernized without foreign intervention
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
o
WWI – “Great
War” – key turning point in world history
o
Due to imperialism, European war spread
throughout world
ü Resources
and manpower sucked in from across globe
ü Japan/US
join struggle for global dominance
o
Weakened/ shattered existing global systems
o
different theaters: Western Front, C./E. EUR, Middle East(ME), Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)
THE
COMING OF THE GREAT WAR
Hostile
Alliances and Armaments Races
o
Fear of Germany
a.
Industrial strength, military potential, aggressive leader – Wilhelm
→ Led to
alliances
Triple Entente –
Russia, France, Britain – two front war
Triple Alliance –
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
*Italy
not that happy – doesn’t like Austria-Hungary →
switches sides in 1915
o
Imperial rivalries getting stronger b/c prestige of nation linked to size of empire
but everyone ran out of areas to colonize
ü Climax –
Morocco annex French – Germany tries stop
ü Jingoism – super warlike
nationalism – middle/working class caught up
o
Arms race
ü Intense/costly
ü GER’s
navy threatens GBR’s centuries control of seas
ü Arms
limitations agreements failed
ü Weapons:
Dreadnought battle ship, U-Boats
ü Constantly
practiced maneuvers – moved troops – always prepared (Pushed for preemptive
strike)
ü Russia
getting stronger
o
Foreign policy connected to domestic problems
a.
Business classes challenged by labor/lower classes
b.
Foreign wars distracts from domestic problems - can always say “Let’s ignore
labor problems, for sake of nation”
c.
Proletariat/business owners benefit - Poor/disenchanted have jobs & industrialists
get to make more products
The
Outbreak of the War
o
Balkans become center of crisis - ethnically
diverse, wants independence, Russia supports Serbians
ü July
1914 Gavriel Princip assassinates
heir Archduke Ferdinand & his
wife in Sarajevo (admin. center of
Bosnian province of A-H empire)
o
Austro-Hungary assumes GER will support – “blank
check” ¾ forces
war – trying to maintain unquestioned monarchical status
o
Russians support Slavic brothers of Serbia
o
Regional conflict turns continental – armies
mobilized
a. Inept
diplomacy – letters from Wilhelm to Nicholas II b.
War inevitable c. War
could sort out tensions
o
Confusion – mobilization a threat or actual war
ü GER
decides to strike first – avoid 2 front war – Von Schlieffen – Schlieffen Plan
o
Germany goes through neutral Belgium – Britain
declares war →all of Britain’s colonial
holdings brought into war
A WORLD
AT WAR
The War
in Europe
o
Leads to stalemate – Germany’s quick strike
fails
ü German
speed not enough for Belgium fighting, British support, France regroups
ü Trench
warfare – protection from artillery/machine guns
ü Impossible
to win
ü New ways
of dying – machine guns, artillery, poison gas, barbed wire
a.
Rats/Lice-infested trenches
b.
Senseless slaughter – life uncivilized in
trenches
ü Generals
using outdated strategies – lacked creativity – aged officer corps
ü Youth
killed/driven insane/maimed/awaited death in trenches
The War
in the East and Italy
o
Russian weaknesses – highest casualty numbers
ü Aristocratic
generals – not meritocracy üIlliterate/poorly
trained peasants
ü Uncoded
commands üRussian
artillery controlled by upper class
o
Tsar Nicholas
II goes on a leave = bad idea – while he’s away:
ü Austro-Hungarians:
soldiers not that excited to fight for emperor
ü Common
theme
a.
Incompetent leaders b.
Annoyed/fatalistic soldiers c.
Corrupt/stupid politicians
The
Homefronts in Europe
o
Soldiers annoyance w/ civilians
ü Leaders
safe from harm üCivilians
overly patriotic, unrealistic about realities of war
ü Inexhaustible
supply of civilians to mobilize to troops
o
Gov’ts take control
a. To
avoid protests/labor strikes, companies taken over by state
b.
Newspapers censored – propaganda departments dehumanized enemy & ignored
weaknesses/defeats →
eventual defeat shocking
o
Civilian population becomes targets
o
Changes sped up
a. Trade
union chiefs given power - they can mobilize working class
b. But
eventually labor begins protesting/uniting against war
c.
Shortages of food/fuel lead to mass protests
d. Women
get more power
ü Capable
of working in heavy industry – destroys domain notion
ü Better
wages/experience/confidence sparked movement
ü Independence
– clothes, smoking, not chaperoned – “new woman”
ü Gained
right to vote in Britain, Germany, and US
The War
Outside Europe
o
Except Austria-Hungary – all Europe had colonies
& used them for manpower, resources
1.
Resources – food, natural resources, textiles – U-boats testing
2.
Colony’s citizens
a.
Settler colonies – used to enforce manpower
b.
India fought Middle East and Africa
c.
French use Vietnamese/African laborers
o
Fighting spreads to Middle East, West/East
Africa, China ¾ Only S. America not really
involved
o
Britain’s navy a.
Cut off Germany from food, raw materials b.
Controlled trans-Atlantic cable lines
o
JAP – allied w/ GBR 1902
a.
Excuse to kick Germany out of Shandong peninsula (led to imperialistic
ambitions later on)
b. GER
islands taken became launching centers WWII
o
Germany’s support: a. African soldiers – East Africa
b. Ottoman Empire – main
support – Young Turks enter in 1915
→Defeated
in campaign against Russia – blamed on Armenians (some Armenians supported
Russians, others neutral) →Genocide
kills one million
o
US becomes global power
a.
American businesses profited – food, raw materials, weapons b. Becomes world’s largest creditor
c.
Supported British – Angolphile d.
By 1918, #s forced Germany to launch offensive attacks
Endgame:
The Return of Offensive Warfare
o
Early 1918, Germany on the roll
a.
Million troops from Eastern front –
Russia out of war b. But…US
soldiers had new weapons: tanks, casualties, exhaustion
→Generals
surrender – fear of army collapse + home rebellion
a.
Generals blame on new government b.
Must accept treaty rules of British and French
c.
Propaganda left German civilians shocked d.
Adolf Hitler would later claim GER
was stabbed in the back by
socialists
&Jews = myth
o
Costs - Millions died in war
a.
Millions more died of influenza after b.
Land and economies destroyed
|
WWI Losses
|
|||
|
|
Dead
|
Wounded
|
Prisoner
|
|
GBR
|
947,000
|
2,122,000
|
192,000
|
|
FRA
|
1,385,000
|
3,044,000
|
446,000
|
|
RUS
|
1,700,000
|
4,950,000
|
500,000
|
|
ITA
|
460,000
|
947,000
|
530,000
|
|
USA
|
115,000
|
206,000
|
4,500
|
|
GER
|
1,808,000
|
4,247,000
|
618,000
|
|
A-H
|
1,200,000
|
3,620,000
|
200,000
|
|
TUR
|
325,000
|
400,000
|
¾
|
|
TOTAL
|
7,940,000
|
|
|
FAILED
PEACE – “A PEACE TO END ALL PEACE”
o
Different perspectives:
a.
French – punishment – Georges Clemenceau
(French premier)
ü Germany
take all blame, pay reparations, shrink size of country
b. US –
Woodrow Wilson - peace for everyone - optimist
üSelf-determination
– call for rights of people ü14
points üLeague of Nations
c.
Britain – David Lloyd George
üIf GER is
weak, communist revolution possible
o
Peace of
Paris
– diktat – dictated peace – Germany has no say
o
Austro-Hungarian Empire broken up – Germanic
Austria cut off
o
New nations get chunks of Germany
o
Problems: a.
Russian Bolsheviks not invited b.
Wartime promises to Arabs ignored – divided up empires
c. China left on its own d. Ho
Chi Minh – Vietnamese leader ignored
e. US Congress vetoed – League
of Nations
WORLD
WAR I AND THE NATIONALIST ASSAULT ON THE EUROPEAN COLONIAL ORDER
o
Subjugated peoples of colonies question status
a.
Europeans fighting each other b.
Industrialized to help out war effort – India becomes industrialized
c.
Europeans ordered Africans/Asians to kill other EURos d. Colonial leaders went to battlefield – left void
ü Gave
administrative responsibility to natives
e.
Initially made promises from GBR/FRA– then backed out f. Questioned racial superiority theory
g.
Social/economic problems make it easier to motivate mass protests
India: The Makings of the Nationalist Challenge
to the British Raj
o
India subjugated longer than Africa
→a.
Educated elite organized politically b.
Due to size, importance – their efforts pioneer other efforts
o
Egypt will also be center of nationalistic
organization
o
Key themes in independence movements: a. Western-educated elites
b.
charismatic leaders take message and spread to masses
c.
reliance on nonviolent forms of protest
o
Indian
National Congress Party
a.
Started as educated study clubs
b.
Started in 1885 w/ consent from British – method of dialogue to prevent protest
c.
Ineffective at first - Focused
on elite Indian issues -
Few if any full-time members
- Didn’t
have support of the masses -
Members loyal to British
d. Gradually
realized they were treated in racist manner
e. Many
were lawyers
f.
Gradually created common Indian identity
- Tough
to do since more diverse than all of European continent - Amazing what having a common enemy/foreign ruler
can do
Social Foundations of a Mass Movement
a.
Preferential treatment for British investors
b. Drain
of Indian resources
c.
Indian money spent for British wars or pay for British government
d.
Infrastructure built using British manufactured goods (only reinforced colonial
dependency relationship)
e. ↓ in food
production to make cash crops for GBR (poverty ↑under
British rule & British can’t help indebtedness & small # landowners)
The Rise
of Militant Nationalism
o
Religious based issues (ex. cow) – ignored by
Muslims
o
Some believed Muslim perspective should be
ignored – BG Tilak (leader –
believed Hindus made up majority of pop., nationalism should be built on
appeals of Hindu religiosity
² Believed
in restoration of Hindu traditions
² Lower
wedding age, no women’s education,
² Used
Hindu festivals as political meetings
² Tilak’s
militant Hinduism confined to Bombay region
→Imprisoned
by British when his violent writing found → Exiled
to Burma
o
Hindu communalist terrorists
² Bengalis
– secret terrorist societies - get strong, tough, learn firearms and bombs →bomb
British buildings/officials/ sometimes emigrants
* Essentially controlled by
World War I
o
Issues calmed w/ government reforms ¾ Morley-Minto
reforms – 1909 – provided educated Indians w/ voting rights/ability to
serve on Indian councils
The Emergence of Gandhi and the Spread of the
Nationalist Struggle
o
India helped a lot during WWI ¾ soldiers,
bankers loaned $, sold British War Bonds – Gandhi →eventually
Indians became annoyed w/ situation üWartime
inflation hurts products
üproducts
can’t be shipped – blockades
üLaborers
wages don’t go far – but bosses getting rich
o
GBR promised India eventual independence if they
helped war effort
² Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms – 1919
= Indians could control issues in provinces
² But…Rowlatt Act: Prevented power of these
groups & censored press
o
Mohandas
Gandhi enters scene→ appealed
to educated and the masses, moderates and radicals
üNonviolent
but aggressive methods of protest
üPeaceful
boycotts, strikes, noncooperation, mass demonstrations
i.
Satyagraha – term
given to his methods – truth force
ii.
Weakens British control
iii.
British can’t legitimately employ superior
weapons
iv.
Bring negative press to British – international
community
ü Western-educated
lawyer – understood strengths/weaknesses of Brits =Great negotiator & Hindu
ascetic/guru
-
Appealed to masses – tradition of following
mystic → made
him important to nationalists
Egypt
and the Rise of Nationalism in the Middle East
o
Nationalism already existed in Egypt –
double-mad – Brits and Turks
o
Lord Cromer (High Commissioner of
Egypt) tried to reform to solve problems
-
But…Turkish khedives too in debt
-
Tries economic reforms
-
Tries new public works projects
-
But poor still starving to death, Ayan –
landlords get rich b/c get paid $ for infrastructure building→ build
larger and larger estates → moved to cities and let
estates be run by hired managers
Ø So…khedives
& ayans = useless – sold out to British
o
Middle class – small, but growing - sons of
middle class (effendi) led way (many
were journalists, printed problems in society – like US muckrakers - British
racist arrogance/monopolization of jobs)
o
Congress party formed in 1890s, but many other
groups exist as well - Nationalist parties can’t unite
o
Dinshawi incident – showed tendency of Brits to
overreact violently to signs of protest
-
While hunting pigeons, British accidentally shot
wife of prayer leader
-
Riots ensue, shots fired, British hang four
villagers and floggings
-
Became catalyst to unite groups – common enemy
enough to put aside different
o
In 1913, Egypt granted constitution for wealthy
classes to run - Messed up due to WWI, Brit gov’t had to take over control, but
precedent had been set
War and
Nationalist Movements in the Middle East
o
Ottoman Empire destroyed by WWI – the sick man
is dead
Greeks
try to carve up Turkey, but Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) – rallied forces → new
Turkish republic nation in 1923
üNew
Latin alphabet üWomen’s
suffrage üAttempts
to secularize nation
o
Middle East – Brits/French promised independence, instead they occupied region – Syria,
Lebanon, Iraq
-
Hussein – sherif
of Mecca looks stupid – sided w/ infidels against Turkish Muslims→ not
very pleased w/ new mandate system –
run by Brits/French
-
Palestine= big problem
British
promised different things to both sides during WWI – b/c desired support:
üBalfour Declaration üHussein-McMahon
correspondence üChurchill
White Paper
üZionist movement (Creating
Jewish Homeland) pushing for decades for emigration to Palestine
Russian
Pogroms – kicked out Jews
Diaspora
– Jews wandering without a homeland for thousands of years
Jews
can’t be assimilated into Christian nations – Lord Pinkser (Jewish intellectual who believed that that
assimilation of Jews into Christian European nations = impossible)
Prior to
1890s, most Jews didn’t support creation of Jewish nation (J w/
their citizenship/civil rights)
→after
Dreyfus Affair…French Jew blamed for being a spy
a.
Journalist Theodor Herzl forms World
Zionist Organization
b. Want
Jewish nation – problem #s – must have emigration
c. Arabs
feel betrayed > Brits pull back support > Jews feel betrayed
d. Arabs
never mount formidable opposition – Jews highly organized →set up
pattern of foreign Arabs speaking for Palestinian Arabs
*Palestinian
Arabs should have been educated
Revolt
in Egypt, 1919
o
Egyptian peasants destroyed by war: Resources
drained to feed soldiers protecting Suez Canal →Food
shortages, starvation, confiscation of animals
o
Insulted by Versailles ignoring of delegation –Wafd
party
o
Riots began across nation a. Started by students
b. Women
joined – some western educated wearing veils
c.
Eventually Brits regain control, but precedent set
o
Wafd
Party
– started by Sa’d Zaghlul
o
Brits pulled out between 1922 and 1936 – But could
still come back if foreign power threatened Suez Canal
o
Egypt spent next 30 years spiraling into chaos
o
Wealthy classes only improved their lives,
plunged nation into despair (peasants - 95% of eye disease, 98% illiterate)
The
Beginnings of the Liberation Struggle in Africa
o
Educated Africans initially loyal to
Brits/French→ WWI changed all that:
a.
Rebellions due to forced recruitment/labor b.
Starvation to feed soldiers c.
Merchants suffer from shipping shortages
o
Britain doesn’t come through on all promises
after war – jobs and public honors
o
Charismatic African American political figures (ex. Marcus Garvey & W.E.B.
DuBois) had large impact on emerging
African nationalist leaders
o
Attempts to create pan-African Movement - started by African Americans or West Indies,
at least pushed anti-colonial spirit
o
Negritude
literary movement – life actually better before – women, old people, sex
o
Writers (ex. poet Leopold Sedar Senghor) celebrated beauty of black skin &
African physique
o
Political organizations created – though w/
little impact
o
Some nations gave representative gov’t
o
Newspapers used to win support
Global
Connections
o
WWI hurt Europe’s economy, helped rival, growing
powers
o
Wartime hardships increased already existing
tensions
o
Labor parties get more powerful
o
New place for women and scientific theories –
challenge conservative ideas
o
Some nations increase empires, but…nationalist
sentiment also increases
o
White men superior argument losing its value
o
Russia, US and Japan all had vested interest in
bringing down Western Europe – different reasons
THE
WORLD IN THE 1920S: CHALLENGES TO EUROPEAN DOMINANCE
Introduction:
-Responses
to Crisis: Revolutionary regimes + authoritarian political systems
-Three
Major Patterns: -western Europe
recovered from WWI incompletely (particularly economics+politics)
-Growth
of U.S. + Japan
-Impact
of Revolutions in Mexico, Russia, and China
Diplomatic
Deafness
-Methods of protest: -India
- Gandhi - Hinduism tradition + criticized caste/gender
-Turkey
- military force + diplomacy
-Deaf
guy uses disability as negotiating technique
The Disarray
of Western Europe, 1918-1929
-War dislocations - new
political/economic movement
-fascism - new political movement in Italy
-War messed up European economy, diplomacy, governments
-Hapsburg
and German empire end
-Devastating material and psychological impact - lost
generation
-Huge debt - not enough taxes - not a
popular war idea
The
Roaring Twenties
o
Despite
disruptions - brief period of stability/optimism - mid-1920s
-Germany refuse new eastern
boundaries, but promise friendship all around
-Nations agree to never go to war
again - Kellogg-Briand Pact
o
Clash
of values
-Right wing - return to authoritarian
regime &
protect national honor
-Left wing splits – authoritarian/becoming
communist
o
People
getting wealthy and can buy more stuff - radios/cars/appliances
o
New
art - film, geometric art (cubist), new play styles, books w/ funky plots
o
Defiance
of traditional styles - conflict conservatives vs. radicals
o
Science
advances - people can't even understand it - too specialized
o
Women
- critical gains
- Women suffrage in Britain/Germany/US
-↑ fashion/leisure freedom -
prosperity + ↓ birth rate
-Sexual promiscuity on rise - some
even dance/drink/smoke in public -Conservative
backlash - women's place in the home
-Industrialization - continue advance - manager - new ways
coordinate/discipline masses of workers
Fascism
in Italy
-Fascism: Political philosophy that became
predominant in ITA and then GER during the 1920s -1930s; attacked weakness of
democracy, corruption of capitalism; promised vigorous foreign and military
programs; undertook state control of economy to reduce social friction.
-Benito
Mussolini creates fascio di combattimeno (union for
struggle) - Italy
* Italian fascist leader after WW I; created
first fascist gov.’t based on aggressive foreign policy and new nationalist
glories.
-Nationalistic, strong leader,
violent methods appropriate
-Don't want inefficient parliament
or socialist class struggle - need leader
-Catalysts - anger over Italy's
gains after WWI ®labor unrest↑®Italian
King eventually asks Mussolini to help
-Parliament inefficient, but
communism was scary
o
Mussolini
takes power - steps to victory
-Eliminate
opposition - suspend elections
-State
control of economy
-Glories
of military conquest
o
Demonstrated
that parliamentary rule not the best idea
The New
Nations of East Central Europe
o
Tougher
to fix situation in Eastern Europe - more rural based
o
Fixated
on nationalistic issues - intense grievances about
territories, could not focus on domestic
issues
o
Tried
parliamentary structure, but ended w/ monarch or dictator
-political pattern resulted from more
underlying social tensions
-Supported by huge landlords who
needed to put down peasant revolts
Industrial
Societies Outside Europe
o
1921 - Commonwealth of Canada,
Australia and New Zealand considered as equals
-United
by crown, consisted of a governor-general w/ no real authority
-Canada
finds economic success: Immigration, transnational railroad, exported food,
natural resources
o
Australia started on social
legislation agenda
-Gov.’t
involved in solving labor problems -Gov.’t
controls infrastructure -New
international pride
The Rise of the American Colossus
o
America - isolationist or
interventionist
üEnters
war late, but still active in Latin America üSeverely
anti-communism - "Red Scare" üSenate
ignores League of Nations
o
Economic boom in 1920s
üGov't
supports business at expense of labor üHigh
tariffs/low taxes
üSmall
companies combine > big conglomerates - return to monopoly üHuge
consumer culture - installment buying
o
Industrialization innovators
üResearch
and development departments + assembly line üMost
efficient ways to boost output
o
Cultural innovation
üJazz,
marketing, Hollywood üHollywood
stars begin to symbolize sexual ideal üW
EUR now follows US styles
Japan
and Its Empire
o
A bit like Germany and Italy
üParliament
tested w/ Depression – fails test üFewer
people vote üSolution
to problems take over the region
o
Interwar period – life getting
better for Japan
üRice
production ↑ –
population growth üGrowth
in consumer culture, industrialization, zaibatsu üMore education
o
Problems – vulnerable to trade
issues
üResource
poor – imported a lot üIf
people don’t buy few products, in trouble
üTradition
of oligarchy still ruling (Military leaders educated part from civilians; not
big fans of parliament/political parties)
REVOLUTION
IN RUSSIA: LIBERALISM TO COMMUNISM
Stabilization
of Russia's Communist Regime
¥
Russia restore order: -Trotsky improves army – generals and
soldiers (taken from the lowest low) = Red
Army
-Lenin’s
New Economic Policy – middle option
before communism =
gave freedom to small businesses + peasant landowners
-Union of Soviet Socialist Republics =Federalist
system made of socialist states
-Republican
gov.’t has a parliament& voters, but no 2nd political party, just updated
authoritarian structure
-New
and improved secret police
¥
Soviet
Experimentation - How was civil society created?
üYouth,
women’s, worker’s groups debate topics/influence management
üEducation
started to spread > literacy
üConflict
between conservative old and new values/teachings
¥
Brilliant Stalin succeeds Lenin®beats out frontman Trotsky
üStalin
different than Lenin b/c he believed in protecting Russia, not spreading
communism
üUnlike
Comintern’s goals, rival
leaders/visions werekilled/expelled
üCollectivization
üRevolution
- New types of leaders at army,
bureaucracy, central gov’t → aristocracy gone
Toward
Revolution in China
¥
Puyi abdication symbolic end to
century of peasant uprisings and foreign control
-Who
would rule next?
üCoalition
of students, middle class, secret societies, military split apart - Military
commanders have best chance b/c they made alliances and ruled regions for
decades
üYuan Shikai –
primary example
-Merchants/bankers
in Shanghai/Canton had power -University
students/intellectuals – great ideas, no power
-Secret
societies want return to Chinese monarchy -Foreign
powers want to take advantage of situation – Japan
China's May Fourth Movement and the
Rise of the Marxist Alternative
¥
How successful was China at a
republic?
-Sun Yat-sen – father of China – tries
parliament w/ cabinets -Outside cities, no one really in favor
-Warlord
Yuan Shikai has more power -Kills opposition, but:
üEventually,
Japanese and rival warlords topple him üYuan
doesn’t deal w/ WWI Japanese threat
ü1916
gives up presidency > power vacuum üPost
WWI: JAP takes N. CHN, Chinese angered
¥
May 4th Movement –
students + intellectuals go for democracy -Favored Westernization over
Confucianism/Chinese tradition →Rights to women, easier Chinese script, individualism
¥
Liberal changes vs. conservative
backlash -Why didn’t liberal reforms work?
a) Warlords control everything b) People dying, need immediate change, not promises (Democracy
takes a long time – debate)
→What
about Communism? -Maybe take
Marxist ideas and modify them
-Li Dazhao sees power of organizing youth
üproletariat
now equals – peasants + workers
ü
Li was attractive b/c a)people
felt betrayed by imperialist powers b)
Anti merchants/commerce
c)Return
to social reform/social welfare →summer
1921, meet and form Communist party The Seizure of Power by China's Guomindang
¥
Nationalist Party hanging on to
control through early 1920s
üBuild
an army, start making alliances w/ social groups üMade pact w/ Communists, used them for connection to
peasants
üUnfortunately,
focused on political/foreign issues, forgot to feed the people
®
Whampoa Military Academy =>Chiang
Kai-shek in control
üGradually
↑ power
üHopes to be able to confront
communists & warlords
ü90%
of population starving to death after century of exploitation/neglect
Mao and
the Peasant Option
¥
Chiang Kai-shek starts defeating
warlords one at a time
üTakes
over regions, becomes head of warlord hierarchy üAttacks Communists – detaches heads from torsos
ügets
support from EUR and US, b/c he’s not
communist
>>But Mao takes a Long March north ®Mao
becomes undisputed leader of Communists
-Eventually
Chiang Kai-shek has to ask Communists for help pushing out Japanese
People:
Benito Mussolini: Italian fascist leader after WWI; created first fascist
gov.’t based on aggressive foreign policy & new nationalist glories.
Alexander Kerensky: Liberal revolutionary leader during the early stages of
Russian Revolution of 1917; sought development of parliamentary rule, religious
freedom.
Stalin: successor of Lenin as head of USSR; strongly nationalist view of communism;
represented anti-Western strain of Russian tradition; crushed opposition to his
rule; established series of five-year plans to replace New Economic Policy;
fostered agricultural collectivization; led USSR through WWII; furthered Cold War
w/ western EUR and the US; died in 1953.
Yuan Shikai: Warlord in northern CHN after fall of Qing dynasty; hoped
to seize imperial throne; president of China after 1912; resigned in the face
of Japanese invasion in 1916.
Li Dazhao: Chinese intellectual who gave serious attention to Marxist
philosophy; headed study circle at the University of Beijing; saw peasants as
vanguard of revolutionary communism in CHN.
Mao Zedong: Communist leader in revolutionary CHN; advocated rural
reform and role of peasantry in Nationalist revolution; influenced by Li
Dazhao; led Communist reaction against Guomindang purges in 1920s, culminating
in Long March of 1934; seized control of all of mainland China by 1949;
initiated Great Leap Forward in 1958.
Chinag Kai-shek: military officer who succeeded Sun Yat-sen as the leader
of the Guomindang /Nationalist party in CHN in the mid-1920s; became the most
powerful leader in CHN in the early 1930s, but his Nationalist forces were
defeated and driven from CHN by the Communists after WWII
TERMS:
Kellogg-Briand Pact: treaty coauthored by American and French leaders in 1928;
in principle outlawed war forever; ratified by other nations.
Cubist movement: 20th-century art style; Pablo Picasso; rendered familiar
objects as geometrical shapes.
Fascism: Political philosophy predominant in ItA and then GER
during the 1920s -1930s; attacked weakness of democracy, corruption of
capitalism; promised vigorous foreign +military programs; undertook state
control of economy to reduce social friction.
Red Army: Military organization constructed under leadership of Leon
Trotsky, Bolshevik follower of Lenin; made use of people of humble background.
New Economic Policy: Initiated by Lenin in 1921; state continued to set basic
economic policies, but efforts were now combine w/ individual initiative;
policy allowed food production to recover.
Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics: Federal system of socialist
republics established in 1923 in various ethnic regions of Russia; firmly
controlled by Communist party; diminished nationalities protest under
Bolsheviks; dissolved 1991.
Supreme Soviet: Parliament of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; elected
by universal suffrage; actually controlled by Communist party; served to ratify
party decisions.
Comintern: International office of communism under USSR dominance
established to encourage formation of Communist parties in EUR & elsewhere.
Collectivization: Creation of large, state-run farms rather than individual
holdings; allowed more efficient control over peasants, though often lowered
food production; part of Stalin's economic and political planning; often
adopted in other communist regimes.
May Fourth movement: Resistance to Japanese encroachments in China began on
this date in 1919; spawned movement of intellectuals aimed at transforming
China into a liberal democracy; rejected Confucianism.
Guomindang: Chinese Nationalist party founded by Sun Yat-sen in 1919;
drew support from local warlords and Chinese criminal underworld; initially
forged alliance w/ Communists in 1924; dominated by Chiang Kai-shek after 1925.
Whampoa Military Academy: Founded in 1924; military wing of the Guomingdang; first
head of the academy was Chiang Kai-shek.
Long March: Communist escape from Hunan province during civil war w/
Guomindang in 1934; center of Communist power moved to Shaanxi province; firmly
established Mao Zedong as head of the Communist part in China.
EVENTS
Late 1800s
1870-1890
Cycle of Depressions in EUR & US
1890 End
of the Three Emperors’ Alliance (Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany)
1894
Franco-Russian alliance
1899-1901
Anglo-Boer War in S. Africa
1900s
1904-1905
Japanese victory over Russia
1906
Dinshawai incident in Egypt
1909
Marley-Minto reforms in India
1910s
1910-1920
Mexican Revolution
1910
Union of S. Africa found
1912
African National Congress party formed in S. Africa
1912
Fall of Qing Dynasty in China; beginning of Chinese Revolution
1914-1918
WWI
1916
Arab revolts against Ottomans
1917 USA
enters WWI
1917
Russian Revolution
1917
Tsarist regime overthrown in Feb; Bolshevik Revolution in Oct; Mexican
constitution includes revolutionary changes
1917
Balfour Declaration promises Jews a homeland in Palestine
1918
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk; Russia withdraws from war
1918
Armistice ends WWI in Nov
1919
Versailles peace settlement & treaty; League of Nations; leftist revolution
defeated in GER, May Fourth movement in China
1919
Revolt in Egypt; 1st Pan-African National Congress; Gandhi leads 1st
nonviolent protest movements in India; Rowlatt Act in India
1920s
1920
Treaty of Sevres reorganizes Middle East (French & British mandates set up
in ME)
1920
Pan-African Congresses in Paris
1921
Foundation of Chinese Communist party; Lenin’s New Economic Policy in USSR
1922
Mussolini/fascists seize power in ITA
1923
Hyperinflation in GER
1923
Defeat of JAP bill for universal suffrage; Tokyo earthquake
1923
Treaty of Lausanne recognizes independence of Turkey
1927
Guomindang (nationalists) capture n. China, purge Communist party
1927 –
1928 Stalin heads Soviet Union; 5 yr. plans & collectivization;
agricultural slump in US
1928-1928
Skyscraper craze in NY; Empire State Building begun
1929-1933
Height of Great Depression
1930s
1930-1945
Vargas regime in Brazil
1931
Japan invades Manchuria
1931-1947
Gandhi-led resistance in India
1933
Nazis rise to power in GER
1933-1939
New Deal in US
1934-1940
Cardenas reform period in Mexico
1935
German rearmament; Italy conquers Ethiopia
1937
Army of officers in power in Japan; invasion of China
1939-1945
WWII
1939
Nazi-Soviet Pact
*Firstworldwar.com
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